Networks Information

Systems
S.K.Nuwan Buddika

Scope and Coverage

This topic will cover:
Network media
Network connectors
Selecting media and connectors

Physical Layer
Media
Cabling (Guided media)

Outline of media
Planning
Implementation
Management

Wireless

Network Media
Support the sending and receiving of signals
For each media type, we require knowledge of:
Physical characteristics
Limitations

Each medium has a unique design and usage

with implications for:
Cost
Performance
Installation

Physical Media
Factors to consider when choosing network media:

Bandwidth rating
Maximum segment length
Maximum number of segments per internetwork
Maximum number of devices per segment
Interference susceptibility
Connection hardware
Cable grade
Bend radius
Costs of materials and insulation

Bandwidth
In analogue systems, this describes the band of
frequencies that can carry information.
In digital, the number of bits per second
Customers demand more complex and
powerful services and these require a much
higher bandwidth.
Bandwidth limits of existing technologies have
been expanded:
Older networking components can remain in use
Supports higher bandwidth than originally rated

Physical Cable Types

Carry a physical signal that may be:
Electrical
Light pulses

The primary cable types are:

Coaxial cable
Twisted-pair
Fibre-optic cable

Coaxial Cable
Was the main original form of network cabling
Now obsolete
Contains shielding - protective layer(s) wrapped
around cable to protect it from external interference

Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Most popular LAN cabling type
10BaseT
Maximum length is 100 meters

Includes one or more pairs of insulated

wires
Specifications give the number of twists
per foot (or per metre).

10BaseT
10 for 10Mbps operation
Base for baseband
T for twisted pair
Maximum length per segment 100 meters
(330 ft)
Maximum of 2 devices per segment
one is the station and the other is the hub

Uses a star topology

UTP Cabling Categories

UTP cabling is rated according to a number of
categories devised by the TIA and EIA

Cat1: 0.4 MHzTelephone and modem

Cat2: Unsuitable for modern systems
Cat3: 16MHz10BASE-T and 100BASE-T4Ethernet
Cat4: 20MHz16 Mbit/sToken Ring
Cat5: 100MHz 100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-TEthernet
Cat6: 250MHz 1000BASE-TEthernet
Cat6a: 500MHz 10GBASE-T (under development)

Cat5 and Cat6 are the most common

Fibre Optic Cable

The core and cladding are made of ultrapure glass.
Light is guided down the centre of a fibre
and reflects off the inner surface.
Each fibre is protected by a plastic buffer
coating.
Further protection from the outer covering.

Fibre Optic Cable Types

Two types:
Single-mode: costs more and generally
works with laser-based emitters, but spans
the longest distances
Multimode: costs less and works with light
emitting diodes (LEDs), but spans shorter
distances

Installation is more difficult, timeconsuming and costly than copper wire.

Fibre Optic Advantages

Immune to electrical interference
Can cover large distances
High transmission speeds
Not easily tapped
The big disadvantage is cost.

Multimode Fibre Optic

Early fibre optic cables
Light signals from a laser are broken up into a
number of paths.
Each is reflected off the internal wall of the fibre.
Signal quality is determined by the amount of
reflection.

Monomode Fibre Optic

Single stream down each strand
Further developed to allow multiple
frequencies to be sent down the same core
Allows for greater distances and
transmission speeds

Wireless Media
Media does not have to be physical.
Wireless connections are also network media.
Frequency is measured in Hertz
Affects the amount and speed of data
transmission
Lower-frequency transmissions carry less data
more slowly over longer distances
Radio -10 KHz (kilohertz) to 1 GHz (gigahertz)
Microwave -1 GHz to 500 GHz
Infrared - 500 GHz to 1 THz (terahertz)

Connectors
Network consists of:
Nodes
Media

Also need to connect the media to the nodes

Range of devices for doing this
Choice depends upon
Cable type
Network type
Device

Coaxial Cable Connector

Most common type of connector used with
coaxial cables is the Bayonet NeillConcelman (BNC) connector
E.g. 10Base2 thin Ethernet (now obsolete)
Different adapters available
for BNC
connectors
T-connector
Barrel connector
Terminator

UTP Connectors
UTP comes in 2 main forms:
Two-pair (four wire) for telephone
Four-pair (eight wire) for data networks

Each has a different connector:

RJ-11 for four-wire telephony
RJ-45 for eight wire data networks

RJ-11
RJ stands for registered jack
Strictly this is a combination of plug and
wiring configuration
Used for a single telephone line

RJ-45
The standard connector for UTP cabling in
data networks
Like a large telephone-style connector
Made of plastic
Can only be inserted one way
Standard designates which wire goes with
each pin inside the connector

Wiring an RJ-45 Connector

The wiring configuration depends upon the
standard being followed.
Private Study Exercise 2 asks you to
investigate the wiring configurations.

Fibre Optic Connectors

Terminate the end of anoptical fibre
Enable connection faster thansplicing
Align the cores of fibres so that light can pass
Common connectors are:

FC
LC
MT-RJ
SC
ST

FC Connectors
Ferrule Connector
A popular connector for monomode fibre
optic cable
A screw on connection
Must have the key aligned in the slot
properly before tightening
It is steadily being replaced by SCs and
LCs.

LC Connectors
Lucent Connector (or Local Connector)
A relatively recent connector that is
smaller than many others
A standard ceramic ferrule connector
It is easily terminated with adhesive
Good performance
Used widely in monomode

MT-RJ Connectors
Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack
A duplex connector
Both fibres in a single polymer ferrule
Uses pins for alignment
Has male and female versions
Multimode only

SC Connectors
Subscriber Connector (or Square
Connector or Standard Connector)
A snap-in connector
Widely used in monomode systems
Has excellent performance
Connects with a simple push-pull motion
Also available in a duplex configuration

ST Connectors
Straight Tip
Most popular connector for multimode
networks
Has a bayonet mount and a long
cylindrical ferrule to hold the fibre
Ferrules are usually ceramic
Ferrules are spring-loaded; you have to
make sure they are seated properly.

USB Connectors
Universal Serial Bus
Developed as a means to connect a large
number of devices to the PC
The standard for peripherals
Allows Plug and Play - no special userknowledge required to install a new device
All devices distinguishable from other devices
the correct driver software was always
automatically used

USB 2.0
The most common
implementation
Very easy to connect
Half-duplex
USB 3.0 has been developed:
Higher data speeds
Less power consumption
Full duplex

NIC
Network Interface Card
Required for a computer to communicate
on a network.
Establishes and manages the computers
network connection
Translates incoming/outgoing messages
Modern computers have a NIC built in

Cable Choice
Most networks use some type of
unshielded twisted-pair cabling.
Some organisations use optic fibre directly
to their desktop machines.
Wireless is an option
Ideally use Cat5e UTP as a minimum, if
using cable

Selection Criteria
Factors to be considered:

Bandwidth
Budget
Capacity
Placement
Existing cables
Environmental considerations
Geographic area
Specifics of organisation and location

Installation Standards
Two standards bodies have recognised standards
for the installation of data networks:
The Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA)
TIA-568-C.2, Balanced Twisted-Pair
Telecommunications Cabling and Components
Standard, 2009

The International Organization for

Standardization (ISO)
ISO 11801, 2nd Ed., Information technology Generic Cabling for Customer Premises, 2002

Structured Cabling
Uses an extended star physical topology
Can be applied to any size network
Cabling is organised into 6 components:

Work area
Horizontal wiring
Telecommunications closets
Equipment rooms
Vertical wiring
Entrance facilities

Work Area
Room containing workstations and peripherals
Faceplates and wall jacks are installed.
Patch cables connect computers and printers to
wall jacks.
Wall jacks connect to a telecommunications closet.
Patch cables should be less than 6 meters long.
Standard requires at least one voice and one data
outlet on each faceplate in each work area.
Connection between wall jack and telecomms
closet (TC) is made via horizontal wiring.

Faceplate & Patch Cable

Telecommunications Closet
Also known as cable closet

Horizontal Wiring
Runs from the work area wall jack to the
telecommunications closet
Types include four-pair UTP (Category 5e or 6)
or two fibre-optic cables
Horizontal wiring from the wall jack to the patch
panel should be no longer than 90 metres
Patch cables in the work area and in the
telecommunications closet can total up to 100
meters

Structured Cabling Max

Distances

Equipment Rooms
Contains servers, routers, switches, and
other major network equipment
Serves as a connection point for vertical
cabling running between TCs
In installations covering several buildings,
each building may have its own equipment
room.

Vertical Cabling
Interconnects telecommunications closets and
equipment rooms
Runs between floors and between buildings
Often fibre optic (but can be UTP)
Multimode fibre optic, up to 2000 meters
Single-mode fibre optic, up to 3000 meters
Between equipment rooms and TCs, distance is
limited to 500 metres for both fibre optic cable
types
From the main cross-connect to equipment rooms,
fibre optic cable can run up to 1500 meters

Entrance Facilities
The location of the cabling and equipment
connecting corporate network to telecoms
provider
Can also serve as an equipment room and
the main cross-connect for all vertical cabling
Where a connection to a WAN is made
Where corporate LAN equipment ends and a
third-party providers equipment and cabling
begins

Wireless Networks
Remember that wireless networking is
gaining in popularity
Acts like a wired network
Uses electromagnetic frequencies:

Radio
Microwave
Infrared
Laser

Wired Networks (LANs)

Still the most common
Necessary to business for survival
Each element of the network
infrastructure is essential
Uses include data transmission and
IP telephony

Cabling Infrastructure
Cabling infrastructure has the longest useable life
of all network components
Costs normally about 2% of network budget
Accounts for up to 50% of network failures
Security measures at this level are essential
Management tools are also available to allow you
to monitor the physical layer infrastructure

A modern wired network

UTP
Cat5
Cat5e
Cat6

Described as 10BaseTX to 1000BaseTX

Relatively cheap
Flood wiring a building provides flexibility
Can also be used for telephony, thus require
only one network

Power over Ethernet (PoE)

Describes any system to transmit
electrical power, along with data, to
remote devices over standard UTP
cable in an Ethernet network (IEEE
803.2af)
Can be used for IP telephones,
requires switches that provide in-line
power

A modern wired network

Fibre

Used for LANs and long-haul transmission

More complex connections
Multi-mode fibre
Single-mode fibre
Requires two fibres or two frequency bands
on one fibre for full duplex transmission
Fibre must be the same from end-to-end so
patch leads must match the fibre runs

Fibre vs. Copper

Fibre has greater bandwidth
Fibre has low attenuation, therefore longer
runs are possible
Fibre is not affected by power surges,
electromagnetic interference or power
failure
Fibre is not affected by corrosive particles in
the air (good for industry)
Fibre is thin and lightweight
Fibres are difficult to tap and do not leak
their signal (i.e. light)

Copper vs. Fibre

Copper is more familiar
Copper is more robust (e.g. to bending)
Fibre interfaces cost more than copper
Cannot carry electrical power to operate terminal
devices

Planning a wired network

What considerations need to be
taken into account when planning a
wired network?

Managing cable infrastructure

What information do you require to
manage a cable infrastructure
effectively?

Cable management
An essential part of the cabling
infrastructure
Organises cabling
Prevents problems such as: Bend radius violations
Cable pinching
Cabinet capacity

Cable Management Ceiling Trays

Cable Management Ceiling Trays

Cable Management Ceiling Trays

Cable Management Patch Panel &

Switch Cabinet

Cable Management Wall Port

Cable Management Floor Ports

Physical Layer Security

Physical layer security is vital to
ensuring a network service.
SLAs often refer to availability and
loss of the physical link can have a
significant impact.
List the risks might you expect with
cabling infrastructure

Standards
IEEE 802 Project
Formed in early 80s
Involved with development of
LAN/MAN technologies
Uses a standards based approach
Managed through committees

Some 802 Committees

802.1q

VLAN

802.3

CSMA/CD

802.3

Fast Ethernet

802.3z

Gigabit Ethernet

802.3ae

10 Gigabit Ethernet

Some 802 Committees

802.5

Token passing ring

802.7

Broadband advisory group

802.8

Fibre optic advisory group

802.10

Security

802.11

WLAN

Cabling
How not to do it: -

Cabling Standards
TIA/EIA 568
Structured cabling standards

Amendments occur as technologies improve

E.g. higher signalling rates, great bandwidth
requirements

Defines the standards for Cat 1 to Cat 6

cabling
Defines cable characteristics such as
performance

Cabling Standards
ISO/IEC 11801
Specifies general-purpose
telecommunications structured
cabling systems.
Standards include both copper wire
and optical fiber inside cabling
systems.
Specifies classes of twisted pair
copper performance:
Class A: 100 kHz Class B: 1 MHz Class C:
16 MHz Class D: 100 MHz Class E: 250
MHz Class F: 600 MHz

Factors affecting
transmission

Attenuation
Crosstalk
Attenuation to crosstalk ration (ACR)
Propagation Delay
Delay Skew

EIA/TIA UTP Cable Categories

Category 5

Supports transmission up
to 100MHz
10/100Mbps

Category 5e

Supports transmission up
to 100MHz
10/100/1000Mbps

Category 6

Supports transmission up
to 250MHz
10/100/1000Mbps

Category 6
Improved performance through greater
bandwidth
1 Gigabit/s

Improved reliability through

improvements regarding: Signal-to-noise ratio
Cross-talk

Can support 10GBaseT

But distance limitations apply

Category 6a

Augmented Cat 6
Offers up to 500 MHz
Can support 10GbaseT
Up to 100m

Cat 6a/Cat 7

From: http://www.universal-cables.co.uk/uploads/pdfs/Cat6%20SFTP12-Cat6a%20SFTP%20Patch%20Cables.pdf

Category 7
Designed to run 10G Ethernet
Adheres to 100m distance of UTP Ethernet

Improved performance due to strict

regulations for cross talk
Uses shielding for wire pairs
Also shielding on cable

Not an EIA/TIA standard but available

and in use

Mechanical Characteristics
Bending radius

>=20 mm

repeated bending

>=1000 cycles

Tensile strength #

>=56 N

Temperature range:During installation

0C to +50C

In operation

-20C to +60C

Scope and Coverage

This topic will cover:
Network topology concepts
Common network topologies and their
application
Topologies and protocols

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, students will
be able to:
Explain the concept of network topology
and its design
Discuss various common network
topologies and their application(s)
Propose a simple network topology in
response to detailed requirements

Topology
To install a network, you need to know how to
connect all the elements together.
A network topology is the layout of
computers, cables and peripherals and also
the paths that data travels along on the
network.
There are two forms of network topology:
Physical topology
Logical topology

Physical and logical topology may differ.

Network Elements
There are two main components of a network:
Nodes
Links

A network node is an intersection between

links that will contain some equipment:
To aid signal transmission (hub, switch, bridge,
etc)
For data processing (computer, printer, etc)

A link is the media through which the signals are

transmitted (fibre-optic, coaxial cable, RF, etc)

Physical Topology
Explains how the computers and
peripherals are physically connected
together
It is a map showing how each piece of
hardware is connected to the other
hardware on a network.
This may be via physical cables or could
be wireless.

Logical Topology
Explains how data passes between
network devices
It is a map showing the logical path of
data around the network.
The logical topology of a network may
be different to its physical topology.

Topology Categories
There are many different topologies.
There are many different technologies
for physical connections.
There are many different protocols for
logical connections.
We can broadly categorise networks as:
Point-to-point networks
Broadcast networks

Point-to-Point Networks
Many connections between individual
pairs of machines
Packets of information may have to pass
through intermediate machines.
Multiple routes of different length are
possible, so routing algorithms are used.
Generally used in larger networks (e.g.
Internet)

Broadcast Networks
Single communication channel that is
shared by all the machines on the
network
Packets sent by a machine are received
by all the others.
Address field specifies the recipient
Generally used for smaller networks
(LANs)

Redundancy
Redundancy involves having more links
and/or nodes in a network than are
strictly necessary for network operation.
Redundancy is built into a network as a
back-up feature to allow the network to
function if one part fails.
High levels of redundancy are required
where network operation is vital.

LAN Physical Topology

Main factors that determine the choice
of physical topology of a LAN are:
Office layout
Need for redundancy
Cost

Office Layout
Several issues that determine physical
topology
A single room provides more options.
Multiple rooms may mean cables
through walls/ceilings or reduced signal
strength for wireless.
Large building with several floors
enhances the problem

Need for Redundancy

Dependent upon how important guaranteeing
network integrity is
Some topologies isolate breaks in the
network so that the rest of the network
functions normally.
Other topologies have built in redundancy so
that:
If a link breaks, alternative paths are available
If a device breaks, there are back up devices
available

Cost
Cost is a function of:
The network topology
The size of the network
The office layout

Not all topologies have equal cost.

A bigger network requires more cable,
etc.
The office layout may make laying
cables difficult.

Real World Networks

There is no one size fits all solution.
Must determine topology based upon
the specifics of the organisation the
network is for
One private study exercise will involve
deciding on a topology for a specific
network.

Standard Topologies
There are three main network topologies in
common use:
Bus is a series of computers connected along a
single cable segment.
Star is a group of computers connected through
a central point (hub).
Ring has computers connected to form a loop.

There are variations:

Extended star
Mesh
Star combined with bus

Bus Topology - 1

Bus Topology - 2
E.g. Ethernet
Devices connected along a single cable
Electrical pulses (signals) travel along the
length of the cable in all directions.
The signals continue to travel until they
weaken enough so as not to be detectable or
until they encounter a device that absorbs
them.
At the end of a cable, the signal bounces back
unless there is a terminator.

Logical Bus
Logical topologies describe the path that
data travels from computer to computer.
A physical bus topology is usually also
implemented as a logical bus.
The physical bus has fallen out of use due
to technological advances.
Logical bus topology is used on some
physical topologies, in particular a star
topology.

Passive Topology
The bus topology is a passive topology.
Workstations on the bus are not responsible
for regenerating the signal as it passes
them.
The workstations are not required for the
bus to function.
If a workstation fails, the bus does not fail.

Physical Bus Advantages

Cost
Less cable required than star or mesh
No additional devices such as hubs

Ease of installation
Simply connect device to cable segment

Resistant to workstation failure

Network functions if device fails
NOTE: problems if cable breaks

Physical Bus Disadvantages

Difficult to troubleshoot
Faults are usually a break in the main cable
and this is difficult to isolate on a large
network

Scalability
Increasing network size and layout can be
important for productivity
Bus topology is not easily scaled up.

Ring Topology

Physical Ring Topology

All computers are connected in a ring.
The ring has no start and no end.
Does not need a terminator as there are no
reflected signals

Signals travel in one direction.

Signals are regenerated by each computer
in turn
Active topology.

Logical Ring Topology

Data travels from one node to the next
device until it reaches its destination.
Modern ring topologies use smart hubs
that recognise a computer failure and
remove that computer from the ring
automatically.
Shares network resources fairly

Physical Ring Advantages

Low signal degeneration
Each workstation is responsible for boosting
the signal
In passive systems, the signal is not boosted
and weakens, which limits the size of the
network
Strong signal means signal seldom needs
retransmitting

Fair allocation of network access to nodes

Physical Ring Disadvantages

Not resistant to workstation failure
Failure of workstation or cable causes
network to fail
Note: modern systems and logical rings can
isolate failed workstation and maintain
network uptime

Network maintenance
Changes to cabling or moving a workstation
can cause network downtime.

Star Topology

Physical Star Topology

All devices connected through a central hub
or switch
Each workstation is connected directly to
the hub.
Very popular topology for modern networks

Star Topology Advantages

Easy to add new devices just connect to
hub
Cable break only affects one single node.
Ease of administration
Centralised management and monitoring of
network traffic simplifies job of network
administrator

Ease of changing configuration

Star Topology
Disadvantages
Hub Failure
If the hub fails, the whole system fails.
However, this is easy to troubleshoot.

Cost
Cost is higher as extra cabling and devices
(hubs) are required.
However, this cost is no longer great and
therefore not a real barrier to implementing a
star topology.

Star as Logical Bus

Star as Logical Ring

Switching as Star Topology

Switched networks are neither bus nor ring
logically, but are implemented as a physical star.
A switch takes a signal coming from a network
device and builds a link to the intended
destination computer on the fly.
Superior to other logical topologies, because
multiple computers can communicate
simultaneously without affecting each other
Main method used in most LAN designs

WLAN as Physical Star

Topology
Uses a central device (access point) to
control communications
Star physical topology because all the
signals travel through one central device

Mesh Topology
Every workstation is connected to every
other workstation.
Not very common

Mesh Topology Advantages

Resilience
Multiple pathways for sending data
Cable fault is not a problem as data can go
via another path
Almost impossible for network to fail due to
cable failure as there are so many routes
available

Mesh Topology
Disadvantages
Cost
Additional cabling
Additional interfaces

Difficult to administer
Due to the number of connections

Extended Star
Several stars connected in a star from a switch

Combination of Star & Bus

Several stars connected along a bus

Star Topology
The most common physical topology in
modern LANs
Requires a device at the centre of the
network that controls traffic
Both hubs and switches can act as the
centre of a star topology.

Hubs
Active hubs are the most common type of hub.
Regenerate or repeat the signals

Needs electrical power

Has many ports
Also called multiport repeaters or repeating hubs
Signal comes in on one port
Cleans the signal (filters out noise)
Strengthens the signal
Sends the regenerated signal out to all other ports

Switches
Central connecting point in a star topology
network
Does more than regenerate signals
Has several ports for connecting workstations in a
star topology
Determines which port the destination device
connects to and forwards the message to that port
Handles several conversations at a time
Provides the full network bandwidth to each
device rather than requiring bandwidth sharing

Network Access
In any network, providing access for nodes to
transmit messages is a key element.
It must be assumed that any node may
require access at any time.
Controlling access to networks becomes more
difficult for larger networks and faster data
speeds.
Access is controlled by a combination of
topology, wiring and protocols that combine
into network standards.

Non-contention Techniques
Designed to prevent conflict between nodes
wishing to transmit
Does not allow two nodes to transmit at the
same time
Each node is given exclusive access to the
network.
This right to access is passed throughout
the network.
Token passing is a common form.

Contention Techniques
Allow conflicts and collisions to occur
Dealing with collisions is part of the design
No order of access to transmit
Any node can transmit at any time.

Common Contention
Technique
CSMA/CD
As used in Ethernet
When a collision occurs, each node waits a
random time before retransmitting, why?

Designing a Network
The main steps are as follows:
Determine what the network will be used for
this will be a major factor in deciding the
topology you use.
Choose the types of devices that will be used
for interconnecting computers and sites.
Consider the type of devices the network will
employ and the usage of network resources
this will determine how many servers are
required and where servers should be placed.

Selecting a Topology
Modern networks have one key factor in this
choice - how fast should the network be?
Physical topology will almost certainly be a star
Logical topology is usually a switched network
Ethernet switches are used on most LANs
Other logical topologies can be the result of:

Use of legacy equipment

Network size
Cost restrictions
Difficulty of running cables

Planning a Logical Topology

-1
Can either start from scratch or upgrade an
existing network?
You should have sufficient information
about:

Networking components
Hardware
Protocols
Physical topologies

Planning a Logical Topology

-2
Analyse the following:

Security needs
Traffic patterns
Need for future expansion
Server capabilities
Internet access requirements

You should also make a plan for disaster

recovery, data recovery and
troubleshooting techniques.

Creating a Network Layout - 1

A network layout must be documented in a diagram.
Factors to consider

Number of client computers

Number of servers
Will there be an Internet connection?
The architecture of the building
The best topology or topologies

Any diagram must be updated if the layout changes

Version control.

Creating a Network Layout 2