ACD505 Session 01

Session 01
Aircraft Steady and Level

Flight 1
aculty of Engineering & Technology
Session Speaker
M. Sivapragasam
1
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Session Objectives
At the end of this session, student will be able to:
Explain the absolute and functional performance of
an aircraft
List the crucial aircraft and propulsion parameters
influencing the performance characteristics of an
aircraft
Show the forces acting on an aircraft in steady level
flight and derive the equations of motion
Calculate the thrust required and available for steady
level flight for jet aircraft
Calculate the power required and available for steady
level flight for propeller-driven aircraft
Assess the importance of maximum velocity on
aircraft design
2
Performance overview
Typical flight path
of a passenger
airplane
There are two types of performance (a)

Absolute and (b) Functional
Absolute
Maximum speed, Stalling speed
Best climbing speed , Best glide speed
Rate of climb & Ceiling
3
Maximum range and speed for
maximum range
Maximum endurance and speed for
maximum endurance
Take-off distance & Landing distance
These are specifications oriented, directly
connected to aircraft geometry, weight,
and the power plant.
4
Functional : Needed for efficient
operation of aircraft
What is the program of speed and
altitude that must be followed in
order to go from a given altitude h1
to another altitude h2 in minimum
time?
During emergency maneuvers or
interception of aircraft
5
What is the program of airspeed and
altitude to follow in order to go from
one flight condition (i.e., speed and
altitude), to another in minimum
time?
Similar to above and during missile
avoidance
6
Functional performance
What is the program of altitude and
speed such that the aircraft can
change from one flight condition (i.e.,
speed and altitude) to another with
minimum expenditure of fuel?
What variation in flight conditions will
permit the aircraft to cover the
greatest distance over the ground?
7
Standard Atmosphere
8
Earth is not a sphere

Are the boundaries for the atmospheric
regions the same everywhere on the
Earth ?
No. The Earth is not a perfect sphere.
The World Geodetic System (WGS),
models the Earth as an oblate spheroid
equatorial axis = 6,378,137.000 m
polar axis = 6,356,752.314 m
polar tropopause = 6 km
equatorial tropopause = 17 km
Variation of properties
Air temperature
falls at a constant
rate in the
troposphere.
From the
tropopause, the
temperature
remains constant
at -60 C until 20
km above S.L.
The lower
stratosphere is the
10
Variation Model
The International Standard Atmosphere
Sea Level :
Pressure = Psl = 1.01325 x 105N/m2
Density = sl = 1.225 kg/m3
Temperature = Tsl= 15.0C = 288.15 K
Velocity of sound = a0 = 340.3 m/s.
(i) 0 to 11 km altitude
T = (288.15 - 6.5*h) K i.e T/Tsl = (1 h /44.331)
P / Psl = = (T/Tsl) ^5.256
/ sl
= = (T/Tsl) ^ 4.256
(2) 11 to 20 km
T=T 11 = 216.65 K, giving the ratio T / Tsl= 0.75187 ,
P11/Psl = 0.2234 ,
11 / sl = 0.2971 . Note T is frozen but not Pressure P
and Density
11
Mach Number
Air is compressible, a moving aircraft
disturbs the surrounding air
These disturbances e.g. pressure
variations, propagate at the speed of
sound through the surrounding air
12
Mach Number
The Mach number ( airspeed / speed of
sound) measures the importance of this
compressibility effect M = V / a , here
a = ( RT) 0.5 = 20 (T)*0.5
M < 0.8 subsonic incompressible
aerodynamics
0.8 < M < 1.2 transonic localized
compressibility effects
1.2 < M < 5 supersonic compressible
aerodynamics
M > 5 hypersonic aerodynamic
13
heating
Example
Implications for flight :

At higher altitudes density drops drastically, so
either V or C L have to make-up for loss in Lift
Temperature drops implying acoustic speed
drops as well for the same V, Mach number
increases
14
Wing Geometry
15
Wing Types
(a) Swept back

(b) Tapered
(c) Elliptic
(e) Swept forward

(d) Rectangular
(f) Delta
16
Aircraft Flight Definitions
17
Aircraft Flight Definitions
18
Airplane powerplants
Two types of engines common in

aviation today
1.Reciprocating piston engine with
propeller
Average light-weight, general aviation
aircraft
Rated in terms of POWER (kW)
2.Jet (Turbojet, turbofan) engine
19
Thrust vs. Power

Jets Engines (turbojets, turbofans
for military and commercial
applications) are usually rate in
Thrust
Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg
m/s2)
For example, the PW4000-112 is rated
at 450 kN of thrust
GE 404-F2j3 Powering Tejas is rated at
49 kN thrust (dry) and 80 kN (after
burner)
20
Thrust Vs Power
Piston Engines are usually rated in
terms of Power
Power is a precise term and can be
expressed as:
Energy / time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg
m2/s3 = Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules =
kg m2/s2
Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s)
= kg m2/s3 = Watts
Usually rated in terms of

horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s =
21
Thrust Vs Power
Example:
Airplane in a level, un-accelerated flight
at a given altitude with speed V
Power Required, PR=TR*V
[W] = [N] * [m/s]
22
Power and Thrust
23
Dependence of Thrust on
Altitude and Velocity
24
Thrust And Thrust Coefficient
25
Thrust dependence on Velocity
26
Power Dependence on Velocity
27
Propeller Efficiency
Where,
V = airspeed, m/s
n = rotation rate, revolution/s
D = propeller diameter
28
Thrust of Propeller Aircraft
29
Thrust of a Jet engine Aircraft
30
Wing Loading
Wing loading is the loaded weight of
the aircraft divided by the area of the
wing
Usually defined as W/S (N/m 2) or M/S
(kg/m2)
A measure of wings carrying capacity
As velocity increases, more lift is

produced by each unit area of wing
So smaller the wing loading, higher
should be the operating speed.
With increased W/S
31
Typical Wing Loadings

Aircraft
Wing
Loading,
(kg/m2)
Role
Year
Buzz Z3
3.9
paraglider
2010
Fun 160
6.3
hang glider
2007
ASK 21
33
glider
1979
Ikarus C42
38
microlight
1997
Cessna 152
51
trainer
1978
Vans RV-4
67
sports
1980
Eurofighter
311
fighter
1998
F-104
514
fighter-bomber
1958
A380
663
airliner
2007
B747
740
airliner
1970
MD-11F
844
airliner
1990
32
Thrust Loading
This is the ratio between thrust (or
power) generated by the engine to
the weight of the aircraft
This is not a unique number nor is it
a constant
Thrust of a turbojet or turbofan can
be boosted by an afterburner for
military applications
At a huge cost of specific fuel
consumption
33
Thrust Loading
Thrust and power depend on density
of air and hence altitude.
Thrust is max at sea level, unfortunately
so is drag, hence (T/D)max is at altitude
34
Typical Thrust Loadings

Vehicle
T/W
Scenario
0.4
Max Takeoff Weight, Full

Reheat
0.6
maximum takeoff weight,

No Reheat
F-22 Raptor
0.85
maximum takeoff weight,

Dry Thrust
Mikoyan MiG-29
1.1
F-15 Eagle
nominally loaded
F-16 Fighting Falcon
1.1
Hawker Siddeley
Harrier
1.1
Eurofighter Typhoon
1.25
English Electric
Lightning
1.2
light weight, full reheat
Space Shuttle
1.5
Take-off
F-15 Eagle
1.6
light weight, full afterburner
F-22 Raptor
1.6
light weight, full afterburner
Dassault Rafale
1.7
light weight, full afterburner 35
Concorde
English Electric
Lightning
ThrustandWingLoadingTrade-off
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
36
Part 1 Introduction Summary

In this session the following topics
were dealt with :
Standard Atmosphere, Aircraft &
Wing Drag, Drag polar
Aircraft Propulsion : Thrust, Power
and SFC variation with flight
conditions
Crucial parameters for design : T/W,
W/S, Drag polar, L/W , CL,max, Cd0 and
their dependencies
37
Performance Road Map
38
Forces on an airplane
Model airplane as rigid body with four
natural forces acting on it
1.Lift, L
Perpendicular to flight path (to relative wind)
2.Drag, D
Parallel to flight path direction (to incoming
relative wind)
3.Propulsive Thrust, T
For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in
flight path direction
May be inclined with respect to flight path
angle, T, usually small angle
39
Forces on an airplane
4. Weight, W
Always acts vertically toward center of
earth
Inclined at angle, q, with respect to lift
direction
Apply Newtons Second Law

(F=ma) to curvilinear flight path
Force balance in direction parallel to
flight path
Force balance in direction
perpendicular to flight path
40
Overall airplane drag

No longer concerned with aerodynamic
details
2
2
C
CL
L
C
D not
D , 0 just
Drag
for
complete
airplane,
D
d
eAR
eAR
wingWingorairfoil
EntireAirplane
EngineNacelles
TailSurfaces
LandingGear
41
Drag polar
CD,0 is parasite drag coefficient at zero

lift (L=0)
CD,i drag coefficient due to lift (induced
2
C
drag)
C D C D , 0 L C D , 0 C D ,i
eAR
Oswald efficiency factor,
e, includes all
effects from airplane
CD,0 and e are known aerodynamics
quantities of airplane
42
CD min typical fighter planes

(Nikolai)
Ref : Nicolai
43
CD min typical fighter planes
Ref : Nicolai
44
Effect of Sweepback
Sweep back reduces the effective Mach number

on the wing
This in turn shifts the drag rise M to a higher
value
45
Effect of M on Drag Polar
Two important effects are seen with increasing M
C D0 and induced drag both increase
46
Drag polar Examples
Ref : Nicolai
47
General equations of motion
FreeBodyDiagram
F
parallel
T cos T D W sin m
dV
dt
Fperpendicular L T sin T W cos m
V2
rc
Apply Newtons 2nd Parallel to flight path:

Apply Newtons 2nd Perpendicular to flight path:
48
Level, unaccelerated flight

L
Aircraft is flying at constant speed (no

accelerations)
Sum of forces = 0 in two perpendicular
directions
Weight of airplane is perfectly balanced by lift
(L = W)
49
PerformanceParametersof
Interest
Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Load Factor
Thrust-to-weight Ratio
Wind Loading
ese above 4 parameters and a couple of others (less importa

termine the performance of the aircraft under consideration.
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
50
Trimmed Flight
Trimmed lift coefficient, CL

Proportional to weight
Decrease with V2
At constant airspeed, increases with altitude
Trimmed angle of attack,
Constant if dynamic pressure and weight are constant
If dynamic pressure decreases, angle of attack must
increase
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
51
ThrustforSteadyLevelFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
52
VelocityforMinimumThrustFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
53
MustangP51Example
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
54
PowerRequiredforTrimmedFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
55
VelocityforMinPowerLevelFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
56
Limitvelocitiesforgivenengine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
57
LimitSpeedsforaJetEngine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
58
LimitSpeedsforaPropeller
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
59
L/DMaximumcondition
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
60
Velocity,CDandL/DatMax
condition
MaxL/DdependsonlyCD0and
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
61
MustangExample
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
62
Poweravailable
Propeller Drive
Engine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Jet Engine
63
Powerrequired
PR vs. V qualitatively
(Resembles TR vs. V)
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
64
Powerrequired
W
PR TRV
CL
L W
CL
PR
C D
1
V2 SC L V
2
PR
C D
2W
SC L
2W
SC L
2W 3C D2
1
3
SC L
C 32
CD
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
PR varies inversely as CL3/2/CD

Recall: TR varies inversely as CL/CD
65
Power required
Zero-Lift PR
Lift-Induced PR
PR TRV DV q SC DV q S C D , 0 C D ,i V
PR q SC D ,0V q SV
C L2
eAR
Zero-Lift PR ~ V3
Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V
66
Powerrequired
1
W2
3
PR V SC D , 0
1
2
V SeAR
2
dPR
3
1
V2 S C D , 0 C D ,i 0
dV
2
3
At point of minimum PR, dPR/dV=0
CD ,0
1
C D ,i
3
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
67
Powerrequired
VforminimumPRislessthanVfor
minimumTR
CD ,0
1
C D ,i
3
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
C D , 0 C D ,i
68
Powerrequired
Wewillshowthatforapiston-engine
propellercombination
Toflylongestdistance(maximum range)
weflyairplaneatspeedcorrespondingto
maximumL/D
Tostayaloftlongest(maximum
endurance)weflytheairplaneat
minimumPRorflyatavelocitywhere
CL3/2/CDisamaximum
Powerwillalsoprovideinformationon
69
maximumrateofclimbandaltitude
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Poweravailableandmaximum
velocity
Propeller Drive
Engine
PA
PR
1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
70
Poweravailableandmaximum
velocity
Jet Engine
PA
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
=T
V
A
PR
71
Altitudeeffectsonpowerrequiredand
available
Recall PR = f(r)
Subscript 0 denotes seal-level conditions
V ALT

V0 0

PR , ALT
PR , 0

M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
72
Altitudeeffectsonpowerrequiredand
available
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Vmax,ALT < Vmax,sea-level
73
How fast can you fly?
Maximum flight speed occurs when

thrust available, TA=TR
Reduced throttle settings, TR < TA
Cannot physically achieve more thrust than
TA which engine can provide
Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defined maximum
flight speed of airplane
74
Further implications for design:

Vmax
Maximum
velocity at a given altitude is
important specification for new airplane

To design airplane for given Vmax, what
are most important design parameters?
Similarly maximum altitude at which an
aircraft can fly is called Ceiling
A/C limited to slightly lower altitude called
service ceiling from safety considerations
75

V
C
Steady, level flight: T = D
D T max
q SC q S C
CL
D ,0
2
L
eAR
Steady, level flight: L = W
W
q S
W2
W2
q SC D ,0
T q S C D , 0 2 2
q S eAR
q SeAR
W2
q SC D , 0 qT
0
SeAR
2
Vmax
T
A
W
W W TA
S
S
W

max
CD ,0
max
4C D ,0
eAR
Substitute into drag

equation
Turn this equation into a
quadratic
equation (by multiplying by
q )
and rearranging
Solve quadratic equation

and set thrust, T, to
76
maximum
thrust,
M. S. Ramaiahavailable
University of Applied
Sciences

Vmax
T
A
W
Vmax
W W TA
S W
max S
CD ,0
max
4C D , 0
eAR
TA,maxdoesnotappearalone,butonlyinratio
(TA/W)max
Sdoesnotappearalone,butonlyinratio(W/S)
77

Vmax
Vmaxdoesnotdependonthrustaloneor
weightalone,butratheronratios
(TA/W)max:maximumthrust-to-weightratio
W/S:wingloading
Vmaxalsodependsondensity(altitude),
CD,0,AR
IncreaseVmaxby
Increasemaximumthrust-to-weightratio,
(TA/W)max
Increasingwingloading,(W/S)
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
78
Minimum Thrust - Example

Aircraft is P51 Mustang
Wing Span = 9.83 m
Wing Area = 21.83 m2
Max mass = 3465 kg
Wing Loading W /S = 1555.7 N /m2
Assume C d0 = 0.0163, = 0.0576
min T
= [ 2/ *(W/S) ( / C
D0
= [ 2/ *(1557.7) ( / C
0.5
D0
0.5
0.5
0.5
79
Maximum Speeds
Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given
thrust or power setting
Low speed, high CL, high !
High speed, low CL, low !
Achievable airspeeds between

minimum and maximum values with
maximum thrust or power
80
Maximum Speeds
81
Mustang - Example
82
Example:BeechcraftQueenAir
Theresultswehavedevelopedsofarforliftand
dragforafinitewingmayalsobeappliedtoa
completeairplane.Insuchrelations:
CDisdragcoefficientforcompleteairplane
CD,0isparasiticdragcoefficient,whichcontainsnotonly
profiledragofwing(cd)butalsofrictionandpressure
dragoftailsurfaces,fuselage,enginenacelles,landing
gearandanyothercomponentsofairplaneexposedto
airflow
CListotalliftcoefficient,includingsmallcontributions
fromhorizontaltailandfuselage
SpanefficiencyforfinitewingreplacedwithOswald
83
efficiencyfactorforentireairplane
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Example: Beechcraft Queen Air

Example: To see how this works, assume the
aerodynamicists have provided all the information
needed about the complete airplane shown in fig
Beechcraft Queen Air Aircraft Data
W = 38,220 N
S = 27.3 m2, AR = 7.5 ,
e (complete airplane) = 0.9
CD,0 (complete airplane) = 0.03
What thrust and power levels are
required
of engines to cruise at 300 kmph at sealevel?
How would these results change at
11,000 m
84
Manoeuvre Limits
85
Summary
In this session following topics were discussed:
Absolute and functional performance of an aircraft
Crucial aircraft and propulsion parameters
influencing the performance characteristics of an
aircraft
Forces acting on an aircraft in steady level flight
and derivation of the equations of motion
Thrust required and available for steady level flight
for jet aircraft
Power required and available for steady level flight
for propeller-driven aircraft
Importance of maximum velocity on aircraft design
86

ACD505 Session 01

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ACD505 Session 01

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Session 01

Aircraft Steady and Level

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

There are two types of performance (a)

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Earth is not a sphere

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Implications for flight :

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

aculty of Engineering & Technology

(a) Swept back

(e) Swept forward

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Aircraft Flight Definitions

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Aircraft Flight Definitions

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Two types of engines common in

2.Jet (Turbojet, turbofan) engine

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Thrust vs. Power

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Usually rated in terms of

aculty of Engineering & Technology

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Power and Thrust

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Thrust And Thrust Coefficient

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Thrust dependence on Velocity

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Power Dependence on Velocity

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Thrust of Propeller Aircraft

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Thrust of a Jet engine Aircraft

aculty of Engineering & Technology

As velocity increases, more lift is

With increased W/S

aculty of Engineering & Technology

Typical Wing Loadings

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology

aculty of Engineering & Technology