ORTHODONTIC WIRES

Introduction
Optimum orthodontic tooth movement is produced by light
continuous
force. The challenge in designing and using an orthodontic
appliance is
to produce force system with these characteristics, creating forces
that
are neither too great nor too variable over time.
Ideally archwires are designed to move teeth with light, continuous
forces. Such forces may reduce the potential for patient
discomfort,
tissue hyalinization and undermining resorption.

So In order to provide the efficient appliance

the knowledge
about wires is essential because wires are the
fundamental
devices that produce the force.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF WIRES

STRESS
Force per unit area within a structure subjected to an
external force.
(The internal resistance of the
body to the external force)
Force
Stress = -------Area
Stress can be simple or complex
3 Types of Simple Stress:
1. Compressive stress
2. Tensile stress
3. Shear stress

STRAIN

Deformation or change in length per unit length of

the body when a stress is applied.
Change in length
Strain = -------------------Original length
Strain may be elastic or plastic or a combination of
booth.
Elastic strain is reversible and it disappears when
the force is removed.
Plastic strain represents a permanent deformation
of the material that never recovers even when the
force is removed

ELASTIC LIMIT

The greatest stress to which a material can

be subjected
such that it returns to it original dimensions
when forces
are released

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

It is the maximum stress at which stress is

proportional to strain .
If the stress and strain were to be plotted in a
graph , the graph
gives a straight line upto the point where stress
and strain
progressed in a definite proportion. Beyond this
point of stress, the
line curves meaning that the strain is no more
proportional to the
stress.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E )
It represents relative stiffness or rigidity of the wire within elastic
range.
Also called YOUNG S MODULUS . So less the strain for the given
stress
greater will be the stiffness.
Stress
E = --------Strain
An ideal arch wire should have sufficient stiffness so as to
withstand
masticatory forces. But it should also be low enough so as to
provide
1. The ability to apply lower forces
2. A more constant force over time as the appliance
experiences deactivation.
3. Greater ease & accuracy in applying a given force.

YIELD STRENGTH
It is the point of stress at which the
material undergoes a SLIGHT
but permanent deformation.
Yield strength is slightly more than
proportional limit and for practical
purposes the same as proportional
limit.
RESILIENCE
It is defined as the amount of
energy
absorbed by a material when it is
stressed upto its proportional limit.

RANGE
It is the distance the wire will bend elastically before permanent
deformation occurs. It is associated with SPRING BACK
YS
Spring back -----E
An ideal arch wire should have large spring back , so it can be
deflected over larger distances without permanent deformation.
This provides the ability to apply large activations with resultant
increase in working time of the appliance .This enables to use
fewer
arch wires & it also minimizes intervals of adjustment , thus
decreasing no., of patient appointments.
STRENGTH = STIFFNESS X RANGE

FORMABILITY

It is the amount of permanent deformation that a wire can

withstand before it breaks.
An arch wire should have high formability that provides the
ability
to bend the wire into desired configurations such as loops,coils
&
stops.
SPRINGBACK

This is the ability of a wire to return to its original shape after

a
force is applied. High values of springback means that it is
possible
to tie the wire in a displaced tooth, without permanent
distortion.

STIFFNESS
The amount of force required to deflect or to bend
a wire.
The greater the diameter of an archwire the
greater the stiffness.
JOINABILITY
This is whether the material can be soldered or
welded.

BIOCOMPATABILITY
It includes resistance to corrosion & tissue
tolerance to
elements in the wire .

ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITY
It ensures the maintenance of desirable properties
of the wire for
extended periods of time after manufacture.
This in turn ensures predictable behavior of the
wire when in use.

CRITERIA FOR IDEAL ARCHWIRES

kusy- Angle-97

In contemporary practice, no one arch wire

material meets all these requirements and the
best results are obtained by using specific arch
wire material for specific purposes.

Although the properties required in an orthodontic wire will vary,

depending upon its application, generally three characteristics are
important for a superior wire .
First, it should be possible for the wire to be deflected over long distances
without permanent deformation; hence, a large springback. This ensures
that
the clinician can activate his appliances without permanent deformation,
which
assures better control over tooth movement and minimizes intervals for
adjustment.
Second, the wire should have a stiffness that is lower than that of
stainless steel,
which would allow wires to fill the bracket for control and at the same
time
produce lighter forces.
Third, the wire should be highly formable, that is, capable of being
easily
shaped, bent, and formed into complicated configurations, such as loops,
without
fracture.

FACTORS AFFECTING WIRE PROPERTIES

1.Cross section of the wire
Changing the diameter of the wire no matter how it
is supported
greatly affects its properties but vary in their
magnitude.
In doubling the cross section
Strength - 8 times stronger( i.e increases by
cubic function)
Springiness Decreases by a factor of 16 (i.eDecreases by 4th
power function)
Range Decreases by factor of 2 (i.e it decreases
proportionately)
Pascal Garrec et al- Angle 2004 Oct

2. Length of the wire:

Changing the length of the wire dramatically affects its
properties
In doubling the length of the wire

Strength Decreases in half

Springiness Increases by a factor of 8

Range Increases by a factor of 4.

3.Type of attachment
The elastic properties of the wire is affected by whether
the wire is
tied tightly or held loosely in a bracket.
Supporting the wire in both ends

Strength Increases twice

Springiness - decreases by a factor of 4

Range - Decreases in half

CLASSIFICATION OF ORTHODONTIC
WIRES
1. By design or cross sectional form
2. By no of wires
3. By diameter
4. By composition
a) Gold wires
b) Stainless steel wires
c) Co Cr wires
d) Titanium based wires
e) Composite wires

GOLD ALLOYS
The composition of the alloys used in gold orthodontic wires is
similar to the Type IV gold casting alloys.
Composition
1.
Gold - 55 % to 65 % is typical ( can also have as low as 15 %)
2.
Copper 11% to 18%
3.
Ag - 10 % to 25%
4.
Palladium 5% to 10%
5.
Platinum 5 % to 10 %
6.
Nickel 1 % to 2%.
They acquire additional strengthening through the cold-working
incorporated
during the wire-drawing process. These wires can potentially be
strengthened
with the proper heat treatment, although they are typically used in
the as-drawn
condition.

Properties
1.Yield strength - 50,000 1,60,000 psi
2.Modulus of elasticity 100 GPa
Advantages
1.With the same cross section,Gold wires has less
force delivery than stainless steel wires.
2.Very formable
3.Good joinability
4.High corrosion resistance
Disadvantages
1.High cost
2.Decrease spring back

Stainless steel alloys

Historically, relatively few metallic alloys have been used in
the
fabrication of orthodontic appliances. Although at one time
gold
was widely used for arch wires, in recent years austenitic
stainless
steel has been the mainstay of orthodontic wires.
It has maintained its popularity because of a good balance
of environmental stability,stiffness, resilience, and formability.
Economic factors no doubt play a role in its wide acceptance
in
comparison to gold.

With the advent of stainless steels in World War I and the

refinement of drawing processes to form wires in the late
1930s, gold archwires gradually lost favor to the smaller
cross-sectional areas that stainless steel archwires could
provide.
By the 1950s the type 300 series of stainless steel alloys
were used for most orthodontic materials.

Composition:
Chromium 18 % to 25 %
Nickel 8 % to 12%
Carbon - < 0.2 %
Balance Mainly Iron
With the presence of chromium in the alloy, a coherent oxide
layer
formed that passivated the surface, thereby rendering the alloy
stainless.
When at least 8% nickel was present, the single phase structure
of
austenite was stabilized, and the overall corrosion resistance
was
enhanced.
Carbon content was purposely maintained below 0.20% to
reduce
the formation of chromium carbides structures that can
ultimately
foster the corrosion of austenitic steels.

As the 50s came to a close, Rocky Mountain

Orthodontics was offering two tempers of coldworked
stainless steels:
1.standard
2. extra hard grade.
Today, American Orthodontics advertises three
grades of
stainless steel wire:
1.Standard,
2.Gold Tone,
3.Super Gold Tone.

The most commonly used types are AISI 302 and 304
stainless
steels, which contain approximately 18 percent chromium,
8 percent nickel, and less than 0.20 percent carbon.
The type 304 stainless steel has a slightly lower carbon and
higher
chromium specification.
These alloys derive most of their strength from
coldworking.
The microstructure demonstrates the typical ''fibrous"
appearance
associated with extensively elongated grains. This
microstructure
can be altered by short exposures to high temperatures,
which is
why soldering procedures have to be undertaken carefully.

Properies
YS 1100 to 1500 MPa
E - 160 to 180 GPa

Advantages
1. Good formability
2. Good joinability
3. Least friction
4. Good corrosion resistance
5. Decreased cost

Disadvantages
1 .High Modulus of Elasticity causes high forces. So smaller
diameter wires are used to decrease force levels .But this
results in
Poorer fit in brackets and may cause loss of control during
tooth
movement.
2. Needs soldering to reinforce joints. These soldered joints
corrode
in oral cavity.
Stainless steel, however, was not destined to enjoy the
predominance in the marketplace that gold had enjoyed for
so
many years before.

Cobalt-chromium alloys
In the 1950s, the Elgin Watch Company developed a complex alloy
whose primary ingredients were cobalt, chromium, iron, and
nickel .
This cobalt-chromium alloy was marketed as Elgiloy by Rocky
Mountain Orthodontics.

Properties
Yield Strengh - 830 to 1000 MPa
Elastic modulus - 160 to 190 GPa

Advantages
Spring back similar to SS
High formability
Can be soldered but technique demanding
Excellent corrosion resistance

In order resilience is desired to capitalize on the inherent

elasticity
of the material, which could be achieved by heat treating the
alloy
at 482C for 7 to 12 minutes.
This so called precipitation hardening heat treatment
increases
the ultimate strength and resilience of these archwires without
changing the stiffness.
So after heat treatment the softest Elgiloy becomes equivalent
to
regular stainless steel, while harder initial grades are
equivalent to
the super grade. Along with Stainless steel it is considered the
most
ideal and economic finishing wire.

Cobalt chromium alloys (Co-Cr) are available

commercially as
Elgiloy, Azura and Multiphase.
Manufactured in four tempers in increasing order of
resilience.
Wires of different tempers are colour coded.

Soft - Blue
Ductile - Yellow
Semi resilient - Green
Resilient - Red

Blue ElgiIoy - Type I - Heart resistant - Softest

tempered
Softest of the four wire tempers and can be bent easily with
fingers,or pliers.
Recommended for use when considerable bending, soldering
or
welding is required. Heatt treatment of Blue Elgiloy increases
its
resistance to deformation.
Yellow EIgiloy - Type II - Ductile tempered
It is relatively ductile and more resilient than blue Elgiloy.
Can also
be bent with relative ease. Further increases in its resilience
and
spring performance can be achieved by heat treatment.
Green Elgiloy - Type III - Semi resistant tempered
More resilient than yellow elgiloy and can be shaped with
pliers
before heat treatment.

Red Elgiloy - Type IV - High Spring Temper

Most resilient and provide high spring qualities. Careful manipulation
with pliers
is recommended because it withstands only minimal working.
Heat treatment of 900 F ( 482 C ) for 7 to 12 mins in a dental
furnace
causes precipitation hardening of the alloy , Increasing the resistance
of the
wire to deformation & results in properties similar to that of SS
Heat treatment at temp above 1200 f ( 749 c ) results in a rapid
decline in
resistance to deformation because of partial annealing.
Optimum levels of heat treatment are confirmed by dark straw coloured
wire or
by use of temp indicating paste.
Caution should be exercised when soldering attachments to these wires
since
high temp causes annealing with resultant loss of yield & tensile
strength.

The advantage of Co Cr wires over SS include

a) greater resistance to fatigue & distortion
b) longer function as resilient spring.
Both Co-Cr & SS wires has same high modulus of
elasticity E =
160 to 190 GPa which suggest that these wires deliver
twice the
force of - Titanium & four times the force of NiTi
wires for
equal amount of activation. The resultant undesired
force vectors
are greater with Co- Cr & SS wires.Clinically this may
translate into
faster rates of mesial movements of posterior teeth,
thus placing
greater demand on intra & extraoral anchorage.

Multi Stranded Wires

( BRAIDED AND TWISTED WIRES)
Kusy & Stevens -Angle 1987 Jan

Initial orthodontic leveling arch wires require great working range

to accommodate the usual malalignment of bracket slot in the
untreated malocclusion. Low stiffness is advantageous so that the
force can be kept as gentle as possible. High strength is desirable so
that normal masticatory forces will not deform or fracture the wire.
Before the advent of Titanium alloy wires , various methods were
employed to maximize these desirable properties in SS wires. One
mtd is to bend loops into the wire to increase the inter bracket wire
length there by increasing the range & decreasing the stiffness.
But this posed problems of hygeine & tissue impingement,as well as
increased chair time

Another method involved the use of multiple strand wires.

This takes advantage of small cross section which
provides the
flexibility & also has sufficient strength provided through
the use of
many strands of wires.
Very small diameter ( 0.005 inch to 0.010 inch) SS can be
braided or
twisted together by the manufacture for clinical uses. The
final
interwined wires may be either round or rectangular in
shape &
between 0.016 inch to 0.025 inch in overall cross section.

TYPES:
1. Triple stranded wires
2. Coaxial wires 5 or 6 stranded wires wrapped around
one central strand. The cross section might be round or
flat.

ADVANTAGES :
Multistranded wires are able to sustain large elastic
deflection in
bending. Because of their low apparent modulus of elasticity
in
bending , theses wires apply low forces for a given
deflection when
compared with single solid SS wires.

Rose ,Frucht & Jonas AJO 2003 April did a study on

clinical
comparison of Multistranded SS wire & a direct bonded
polyethylene ribbon reinforced resin composite wire
used for
lingual retention.
They concluded that 50% of MS wires stayed over 24
months
whereas mean survival time for RRC wire is only 11.5
months.
So multistranded wires have excellent retention as it
allows
minimal physiological movement of teeth which is
desirable.

AUSTRALIAN WIRES

Mr. Arthur j wilcock of whittlesea, Victoria.,

originally developed
this special orthodontic wire at the request of Dr. P.R.
Begg.
Available in a variety of diameter sizes, grades of
resiliency,
coiled or in St. lengths . St. Length wire is usually
not considered to
be as resilient as coiled wire due to the straightening
process. Each
grade is easil identified by a coloured label.

Regular grade- White label

Lowest grade easier to bend, used for practice bending
or forming
auxiliaries.
Can be used for archwires when distortion or bite
opening is not a
problem.
Regular plus grade -Green label
Relatively easy to form yet more resilient than regular
grade, used
for auxiliaries and arch wires when more pressure and
resistance to
deformation are desired.

Special grade - Black label

Highly resilient, yet Can be formed into intricate
shapes with little
danger of breakage. Used (.016" diameter) for starting
arches in
both the light wire and other techniques.

Special plus grade Orange label

Special plus wire is routinely used by experienced
operators.
Hardness and resiliency of .016" size are excellent for
supporting
anchorage and reducing deep overbites. Must be bent
with care.

Extra special plus grade - Blue label

This grade is unequaled in resiliency and hardness. It is
more
difficult to bend and more subjected to fracture. However,
many
Orthodontists feel E.S.P.'s ability to move teeth, open bites
and
resist deformation far outweighs the inconvenience
caused by an
occasional breakage while bending.
The new grades and sizes of wire available now are;
Premium - .020"
Premium plus - .010", .011", .012", .014", .016 & .018"
Supreme - .008", .009", .010", .011
They are available in spools or straight lengths.

TITANIUM BASED WIRES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Ni Ti wires
B- Titanium wires or TMA wires
Alpha Titanium wires
Japanese NiTi wires
Chinese NiTi wires
Copper NiTi wires
Timolium wires

CONVENTIONAL NITINOL
In the late 60s, the Office of the Navy was actively
studying new types of alloys that exhibited a shape
memory effect (SME).

One of these, a nickel-titanium alloy, showed

great promise and was dubbed nitinol, an
acronym
for nickel-titanium Naval Ordnance
Laboratory.

This alloy was capable of being deformed, clamped, heated,

and
cooled into a specified shape, so that when it was later
deformed
into a new shape and subsequently heated, the material would
remember its previous post-heat treatment shape.
Around 1970, Dr. George Andreasen recognized the potential
of
this alloy which were based on the original research of
Buehler.
Largely through his efforts, the first nitinol alloy was marketed
to
orthodontists as Nitinol.

Composition: Stoichiometric equiatomic nickel

titanium wires contain
Ni 52%
Ti 45%
Co 3%
Solid-state solution hardening and cold working
are the
basic strengthening mechanisms employed with
this alloy.

PHASE TRANSFORMATION :
There are 2 major NiTi phases in nickel titanium wires
1. Austenitic NiTi
2. Martensitic NiTi
Austenitic NiTi has a ordered BCC structure that occurs at
High
temperature & Low stresses. It is relatively rigid & unyielding.
Martensitic NiTi has a distorted monoclinic , triclinic or
hexagonal
structure that forms at High stresses & Low temperatures.
In this phase the wire is said to be ductile & readily capable of
plastic deformation.

Shape Memory and Super elastic properties of NiTi based

wires are
attributed to a phase transformation of the crystal structure
from
austenitic form to martensitic form. This transformation occurs
as a
result of temperature change or the application and removal of
stress.
When the wire is loaded, an anatomic shift occurs from the
austenitic BCC structure through an intermediate rhomboidal
phase(R-phase) to the martensitic hexagonal close-packed
lattice
structure.
Upon unloading, the martensitic wire will return to the
austenitic
lattice , passing again through the R-phase.

TEMPERATURE TRANSITION RANGE ( TTR ):

The phase transformations do not occur at a particular
temperature
but rather within a range known as temperature transition
range. It
refers to the temperature range for the start & completion
for that
particular structure.
On Cooling :
Ms ( martensite start ) The start of martensite formation
Mf ( martensite finish ) - The end of martensite formation
On Heating:
As ( austenite start ) Here the martensite begins to
decline &
austenite begins to form.
Af ( Austenite finish )- Till here the whole structure is
austenite
Md ( martensite deformation )- SIM

Shape memory
It is a phenomenon occurring in the alloy that is
soft and readily
amenable to change in shape at a low temperature,
but it can easily
be reformed to its original configuration when it is
heated to a
suitable transition temperature.

Hurst & Nanda in AJO 1990.

According to them the specific TTR depends on the chemical
composition of the alloy & its processing history. The TTR can be
changed by altering the proportion of Ni to Ti or by substituting
Co
for Ni.
The memory configuration of the alloy must be first set in the
material by holding it in desired shape while annealing it at 450
F
to 500 F for 10mins. Through deflection & repeated temp cycles
the wire in the austenite phase is able to memorize the
preformed
shape including specific orthodontic archforms.
Once a certain shape is set , the alloy can then be plastically
deformed at temperatures less than TTR.
To obtain maximum shape recovery the amount of plastic
deformation should be limited to 7% to 8% of the original linear
length.

Super elasticity
The "super-elastic property" is a phenomenon
that can be
described briefly. The stress value remains fairly
constant up to a
certain point of wire deformation. At the same
time, when the wire
deformation rebounds, the stress value again
remains fairly constant.

This can be produced by stress, not by temperature difference,

and
is called stress-induced martensitic transformation.
Martensitic transformation begins when an external force is
applied
in such a manner that the stress exceeds a given amount. Even
when strain is added, the rate of stress-increase levelsoff due to
the
progressive deformation produced by the stress-induced
martensitic
transformation, indicating a movement similar to the slip
deformation. This phenomenon is the so-called super-elasticity.
On the other hand, if the stress is diminished, the NiTi alloy
returns
to the previous shape without retaining the permanent
deformation
because of the characteristics of returning to the austenite phase
within a given temperature range.

Hence it is necessary to manufacture wire in the

austenitic phase for
it to possess Superelastic behavior. These wires are
called A NiTi
wires.
The non super elastic NiTi wires contain substantial
quantities of
heavily cold worked & stable martensite.
As temp of these alloys are much higher than room temp
& the
temp of oral environment .They are now commercially
available &
are referred to as M NiTi wires.

CLASSIFICATION OF NI -TI WIRES

Kusy has classified nickel titanium

wires as
1.Martensite stabilized alloys ( M NiTi )
These do not possess shape memory or
superelasticity,
because the processing creates a stable
martensite
structure.( ex- Nitinol )

2.Martensite active alloy.

These alloys employ thermoelastic shape memory
effect.
The oral environment raises the temp of the deformed
archwire
in martensite phase to transform into stable austenite
form.
This can be observed by the clinician if a deformed
archwire
segment is warmed in the hands.
( ex - Neo-Sentalloy & Copper NiTi)

3. Austenitic- active wires.( A NiTi )

These alloys under go a Stress Induced Martensite ( SIM )
transformation when activated. These alloys have both super
elastic
& shape memory effect. They do not exhibit thermoelastic
behavior
when deformed wire segment is warmed in the hands.( ex
Chinese
NiTi & Japanese NiTi ).
In A-NiTi wire, over a considerable range of deflection the force
produced hardly varies. This means the wire exerts about the
same
force whether it is deflected a relatively small or a large
distance ,which is a unique & extremely desirable property.
(ex Chinese & Japanese NiTi.) Burstone CJ et al AJO 1985
June

The unique force deflection curve for A NiTi wire is that

its unloading curve differs from loading curve i.e
reversibility has
an energy loss associated with it termed HYSTERESIS .
This means the force delivered is not the same as the
force applied
to activate.
The different loading & unloading curves produce the
remarkable
effect that the force delivered can be changed by merely
releasing
the wire & retying it.

PROPERTIES :
1. Good spring back
2. Excellent flexibility
3. Low stiffness
4. High range
ADVANTAGES:
1. Large elastic deflections is capable in these wires
because of their flexibility & spring back effect.
2. Because of their low stiffness these wires produce
low forces. Also for a given amount activation they
produce more constant force than that produced
by SS wires.
3. Andreasen & morrow In AJO 1980 Nov indicate
that these wires are associated with fewer arch
wire changes , less chair side time , reduction in
time required to accomplish rotations & leveling &
less patient discomfort.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Poor formability allows the wire best suitable only for pre adjusted
systems & so cannot be used in Begg or similar techniques which
require
formation of loops & coils etc.
2. Any first , second or third order bends have to be over prescribed
to
obtain the desired permanent bend.
3.The low stiffness provides inadequate stability at the completion of
treatment
4.Some patient are sensitive to Nickel.
5. NiTi also fractures readiliy when bent over a sharp edge. In
addition
bending also adversely affects the spring back property, & so loops &
stops or not recommended in these wire.

Since hooks cannot be bent or attached to NiTi , CRIMPABLE

HOOKS

& stops are recommended.

CINCH BACKS

distal to molar buccal tubes can be obtained by

resistance
or by flame annealing the end of the wire. This makes the wire
dead soft
& it can be bent into any preferred configuration. A dark blue
color
indicates the attainment of desired annaeling temp.
Care should be taken not to over heat the wire because this
makes it
brittle.

Chinese NiTi wire

(AJO- 1985 Jun Burstone)
Developed by Dr. Tien Hua Cheng and associates at the General
Research Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals in Beijing, China.
This alloy has unique characteristics and offers significant
potential in the
design of orthodontic appliances. Its history of little work
hardening and
a parent phase which is austenite yield mechanical properties
that differ
significantly from nitinol wire.
In addition, Chinese NiTi wire has a much lower transition
temperature
than nitinol wire.

Physical Properties
(Burstone et al AJO 1985 June )
1.Springback
Chinese NiTi wire has 1.4 times the springback of
nitinol wire and
4.6 times the springback of stainless steel wire.
2.Stiffness
With steel & Nitinol the avg unloading stiffness is same
regardless
of amount of activation. But not for Chinese NiTi.
At 80activation the average stiffness is 73% that of SS
& 36% that of Nitinol.

3.Temperature-dependent effects
Chinese NiTi wire, exhibits some small differences at varying
temperatures because material components have lower
transition
temperatures. The stiffness is approximately the same between
room temperature at 22C and mouth temperature at 37C.
At a temperature of 60C, the loading curve is slightly higher
and
the unloading curve loses its S shape and exhibits greater
permanent
deformation and less springback.
Since the wire is normally used between room temperature and
mouth temperature, these temperature-dependent effects are
clinically insignificant.

4.Time-dependent effects
Stainless steel wires are resistant to additional permanent deformation
that occurs with time. Some stress relaxation may occur, but the effects
are not significant.
When 0.016-inch stainless steel, nitinol, and Chinese NiTi wires were
engaged in brackets placed interproximally 3 mm apart with a 6.5 mm
occlusogingival discrepancy between the center bracket and the
adjacent
ones the wires remained tied in for periods of 1 minute, 1 hour, and 72
hours.
It showed that, over 1 minute, the Chinese NiTi wire deformed a
limited
amount,compared to the nitinol and stainless steel wires which
deformed
considerably.

Furthermore, the nitinol wire continued to show a time

dependent deformation past the initial 5 minutes.
Although NiTi wires show some time-dependent
effects,
these are insignificant at room temperature.

Clinical significance and discussion

Because of its high range of action or springback,
Chinese
NiTi wire is applicable in situations where large
deflections are
required.
Applications include straight-wire procedures when
teeth are
badly malaligned and in appliances designed to deliver
constant forces during major stages of tooth movement.

Japanese NiTi alloy wire

In 1986, Miura F et al reported on Japenese NiTi.
In 1978, Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd. of Japan produced
Japanese
NiTi alloy, possessing all three properties (excellent springback,
shape memory, and super-elasticity).
Japanese NiTi exhibited an unusual property termed " super
elasticity," which no other orthodontic wire has shown.
The wire delivered a constant force over an extended portion of
the
deactivation range. Among all the wires compared, Japanese
NiTi
alloy wire was the least likely to undergo permanent
deformation
during activation.

The new alloy exhibited a specific stress-strain curve unlike

those
of the other tested materials. Stress remained nearly constant
despite the strain change within a specific range. This unique
feature
is the manifestation of so-called super-elasticity.
Commercial NiTi alloy wire, does not possess super-elasticity,
even
though it belongs to the same category as NiTi alloy wire. In
Nitinol
the stress was increased in proportion to the strain increase,
which
is similar in pattern to the stainless steel and Co-Cr-Ni wires.
Super-elasticity is especially desirable because it delivers a
relatively
constant force for a long period of time, which is considered a
physiologically desirable force for tooth movement.

COPPER NI TI WIRES
In 1994 Copper NiTi wires were introduced by Ormco
corporation.The addition copper to nickel titanium enhances
the
thermal reactive properties of the wires thereby enabling the
clinician to provide optimal forces for consistent tooth
movement.
It is available in three temperatures variants: 27C , 35 C &
40 C corresponding to the austenite finish temperature (Af )
for
the completion of martensite to austenite transformation.
Shape memory behavior is reported by the manufacturer to
occur
for each variant to occur to each variant at temperatures
exceeding
the specified temperature.

COMPOSITION:
All three Copper NiTi wires on elamental analysis
indicate that they
have very similar compositions.
1. Nickel 44%
2. Titanium 51%
3. Copper - < 5%
4. Chromium 0.2% to 0.3%
Kusy has reported that Copper NiTi contains nominally
5to6
Wt % cu & 0.2 to 0.5 wt% Cr.
The 27C variant contains 0.5% Cr to compensate for the
effect
of copper in raising the Af temp above that of the oral
environment.
The 35C & 40C variant contains 0.2% Cr.

Addition of copper:
It not only modifies the shape memory , but
also increases the stability of transformation
. It also helps to control hysteresis width &
improves corrosion resistance.The
superelastic wire contains Cu of 5 to 6 wt %
to increase strength & to reduce energy loss.
Unfortunately these benefits are associated
with an increase in phase transformation
temp above that of the ambient value in
mouth.Thus necessitates addition of 0.55 Cr.

27C Copper NiTi :

1. Differential Scanning Calorimetry ( DSE ) demonstrates that
this wire contains a single peak both on heating & cooling.
This indicates a direct transformation from martensite to
austenite
on heating & reverse transformation on cooling without an
intermediate R phase.
2. It generates forces in the high range of physiological force
limits
& produces constant unloading forces that can result in rapid
tooth
movement.
Engagement force is lower than that of other superelastic wires
because of the lower loading forces built into the Cu alloy.
At the same time unloading force levels are comparable.
3. This varient would be useful in mouth breathers.

35 C Copper NiTi :
1. DSC on this alloy shows two overlapping peaks
on heating ,corresponding to transformation
from martensite to
R phase followed by transformation from R
phase to austenite.
2. They generate mid- range constant force levels
when the wire reaches oral temp,.
Early engagement is easier with full size arch
wire due to lower loading forces.Unloading
forces are higher & more sustained than other
shape memory wires when it reaches body
temp,.
3. This variant is activated at normal body temp.

40C Copper NiTi :

1. DSC is similar to 35 C Copper NiTi with two
peaks.
2. It provides intermittent forces that are activated
when oral temp exceeds 40C. It is useful as an
initial arch wire & can be used to engage severely
malaligned teeth like highly placed canine
without creating damage or painful levels of force
or unwanted side effects. It is also the wire of
choice for patients scheduled for long intervals
between visits when control of tooth movement is
a concern.
3.This variant would be activated only after
consuming hot food or beverages.

ADVANTAGES OVER TRADITIONAL NI-TI

ALLOYS
1. Copper NiTi is more resistant to permanent
deformation & exhibits better springback.
2. It demonstrates a smaller loading
force for the
same degree of
deformation, making it possible to
engage the wire to severely malposed tooth
with less
patient discomfort & potential
for root resorption.

3. The decreased hysteresis & flatter unloading

curve result in more consistent forces that are
active longer within the optimal range for tooth
movement.
4.It exhibits a more constant force/ deformation
relationship, providing superior consistency from
archwire to archwire.
5. As copper is an efficient conductor of heat,
these wire demonstrates consistent
transformation temperatures that ensure
consistency of force. This equates to
effectiveness in moving teeth

Beta titanium
Developed by Dr.Burstone in 1980.
One of Dr. Burstones primary objectives was to
produce
an alloy whose deactivation characteristics were about
one-third that of stainless steel or twice that of a
conventional martensitic stabilized nitinol. This led to
Ormco Corporations introduction of the low-stiffness
beta-phase titanium-molybdenum alloy known as
TMA.

COMPOSITION :
Titanium 77.8 %
Molybdenum 11.3%
Zirconium 6.6%
Tin - 4.3
At temperatures above 1,625 F pure titanium rearranges into a
body- centered cubic ( BCC) lattice, referred as beta phase.
With addition of elements like molybdenum or columbium, the
Ti based alloy can maintain its beta structure even when cooled
to
room temperature. So it is referred as Beta- stabilized titaniums .
The alloying and body-centered cubic structure impart a unique
set
of properties.

The BCC structure provides excellent formability to

titanium wires.The many slip systems ( 12) available
for
the dislocation movement in BCC crystal structure
accounts for the high ductility.
The addition of zirconium & tin contributes to
increased
strength & hardness & their presence avoids the
formation
of an embrittling phase during wire processing at
high
temperatures.

ADVANTAGES:
For orthodontic use, Advantages of this alloy are several
1. when compared with stainless steels, TMA produced
gentler linear forces per unit of deactivation and had
substantially more range and higher springback.
2. Excellent formability
The high formability of titanium allows the
fabrication of closing loops with or without helices.
The low stiffness of the material and its high
springback improve a loop of any given design or
allow for the maintenance of a given force system
with simpler designs, as in the elimination of helices
or loops.

3.

It is the only wire with true weldability

It allows direct welding of auxiliaries to an arch wire

without reinforcement by soldering. Using a light
capacitance weld, a smaller cross section of titanium
can
be welded directly to the main arch-on-arch segment .
Finger springs and other auxiliaries of an active nature
can
also be welded directly to an arch wire. The welding has
not appreciably altered the mechanical properties of the
spring, and it can be activated a full 90 degrees without
any permanent deformation..

Welding should be performed with care. Unlike steel,

where too much heat will produce softness in the
wire,
overheating of titanium could lead to brittleness of an
energy-imparting finger spring.
The flat-to-flat electrode configuration was found to be
preferable for welding the beta titanium alloy, and
distortion can be minimized by selection of optimum
settings- Donover ,Lin, Brantley & Conover AJO 1984- March
It appears that the welding of round wire to
rectangular
wires yields joints with best relative ductility.

4. Absence of nickel makes the wire more

biocompatible & can be used in nickel sensitive
patients.
5. Has excellent corrosion resistance &
biocompatibility
which is due to the presence of a thin , adherent
passivating
surface layer of titanium oxide.
Indeed, TMA was almost the perfect wire, since its
characteristics were so balanced.

DISADVANTAGES
1. The coefficients of friction were the worst
of any of the orthodontic alloys, and
consequently its ability to accommodate
the sliding of teeth was limited .This
causes highest friction.
2. High cost.

ION IMPLANTATION:
Recently , the ion implantation process has been applied to
orthodontic wires. This process alters the surface composition of
the wire. It has been proposed that this process decreases the
frictional forces produced during tooth movement.
Implantation of nitrogen ions into the surface of this wire causes
surface hardening & can decrease frictional force by as much as
70% This process tends to increase stress fatique , hardness, &
wear
regardless of the composition of the material.
Laboratory data suggest that ion implantation of nitrogen into
TMA
wire will reduce both static & kinetic coefficients of friction
significantly. however these reductions are significant only when
both the wire & opposing bracket surface are implanted.

Ion implantation takes place in vacuum & involves the

implantation of
oxygen & nitrogen ions.These ions penetrate the wire
surface by
reacting with tin in TMA to change the surface &
immediate subsurface of the material.This layer is very hard & creates
considerable
compressive forces.These forces improve the fatique
resistance &
ductility while reducing the co efficient of friction roughly
to that of SS.

Katherine Kula & Proffit AJO 1998 studied the effect of ion
implantation of TMA wires on rate of space closure. They
concluded
that there was no significant difference between ion implanted &
Unimplanted TMA wires in sliding mechanics clinically.
Although the mechanical properties of Elgiloy and stainless steel
are
similar, the orthodontist can give the former a strengthening heat
treatment which allows manipulation of the wire in a softened
state.
This can be followed by a hardening heat treatment to obtain the
desired resilience.

ALPHA TITANIUM WIRES

Developed by Mr. A.J.Wilcock in 1988.
They are pure Titanium in -phase.
Composition
Titanium 90%
Aluminium 6% ( formers )
Vanadium _ 4 %
The alloy is different in that its molecular structure
resembles a
closely packed Hexagonal Lattice as against the BCC lattice
of TMA.
Because of this hexagonal lattice it possesses fewer slip
planes. The
more slip planes, the easier it is to deform the material ( Kusy
et al
AJO 2004 Nov )

Also - Titanium has Modulus of elasticity of 144

GPa
wheras - Titanium has about 72.4 GPa .So it
delivers
more force & has less working range. But
Titanium
delivers only 60% force / unit of deactivation &
has 1.6
times more working range when compared with
Titanium .

HEAT ACTIVATED WIRES

A Martensitic heat activated titanium wires exhibit
excellent shape memory & superelastic properties.
It transforms to its Austenite form at 35C ,
delivering a
very gentle continuous force.Because it is soft &
pliable at
room temperature , it can be easily engaged to even
the
most severely malaligned teeth. Larger round or even
rectangular arch wires can be utilized much earlier in
treatment with little patient discomfort.

Nitinol heat activated wire is a thermally activated

super
elastic archwire.It is the easiest of nitinol wires to
engage
& it delivers light continuous forces that effectively
move
tooth with minimal discomfort to the patient.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It can be cooled or chilled resulting in a softer ,
more pliable wire for easy engagement.
2. Provides light continuous force
3. Force activation at 27C
4. Available in square sizes making it excellent for
early torque control

COMPARISION OF IMPORTANT
PROPERTIES
Property
Cost

Stainless steel

Cobalt chromium

- TI
High

Ni Ti

low

Low

High

Force delivery

High

High

Intermediate

Low

Spring back

Low

Low

Intermediate

High

Formability

Good

Good

Excellent

Poor

Ease of joining

Welded joints
must be
reinforced
with
solders

Same as SS

Only wire with true

weldability

Poor

Friction

Lowest

Low

Highest

Highest

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
ALIGNMENT

Principles in the choice of alignment arch wires:

1. Initial arch wires should provide light
continuous force of approximately 50 grams,
to produce the most efficient tipping tooth
movement.
2. The arch wire should be able to move freely
within the brackets. So cross section of the
wire should be small & should be loosely tied
to the bracket to minimize friction.

3.Rectangular arch wires particularly those with tight

fit
within the bracket should be avoided.
4.Springier the arch wire crowding of symmetric nature
can be corrected without the danger of loosing the arch
form. If only one tooth is crowded out of line, a rigid
arch
wire is needed to maintain the arch & auxiliary wire
should be used to reach the malalighned tooth.

So initial archwire should have

Excellent strength.

Good springiness

Long range of action

Small cross section

Super elastic A NiTi with the cross section of 14
mil or
16 mil is ideal for this category.
If steel is used in this stage either multistranded
wires or
loops should be used to increase springiness.
Beta titanium is rarely used.

Alignment with Begg technique

The narrow brackets used in Begg tech, provide the
maximum possible interbracket distance . Also the
initial
arch wires bypass the premolars. This long posterior
span
of wire makes it difficult to use the highly flexible Ti
based wires.

So SS wires with loops are used. Latest combination

technique uses combined wires with flexible anterior
segment & stiff posterior segment like Dual- Flex.

For levelling & space closure :

It depends mainly on biomechanics involving either
intrusion of anteriors or extrusion of posteriors. For
space
closure the wire should have least friction. Usually
round
SS wires with a progressing increase in cross-section is
used. This method takes advantage of increasing wire
size
to increase the stiffness & to get constant force delivery
.
This method is termed as REPLACEMENT APPROACH or
VARIABLE CROSS SECTION ORTHODONTICS.

There is another method proposed by Charles

.J.Burstone
(AJO 1981 July) as early as 1980s called VARIABLE
MODULUS ORTHODONTICS.

The author states that advances in orthodontic wire

alloys
have made it possible to control wire stiffness by
varying
material properties namely the Modulus of elasticity,
hence the name. Burstone formulates his concepts by
stating that the over-all stiffness of the appliance (S) is
determined by two factors; one factor relates to the
wire
itself, (Ws) and the other is the design of the appliance
(As)

In general terms,
Appliance stiffness = Wire stiffness * Design stiffness
Design stiffness is dependent on factors like interbracket
distance
brought by incorporating loops & coils.
Ws - Wire stiffness is determined by a cross-sectional property
or
by the material stiffness dependent on materials property such
as
the modulus of elasticity.
Therefore an increase in appliance stiffness can brought about
not
only by change in appliance design or increase in cross section
thickness of the wire but also by selecting material with higher
modulus of elasticity while maintaining the same cross section.

ADVANTAGES:
1.The amount of play bt bracket & wire is not dictated by desired
wire stiffness but is under the total control of the clinician. once the
cross sectional size & shape have been established, the desired
stiffness can be implemented by selecting the alloy with appropriate
material stiffness.
2.The low Moduli of elasticity of the newer alloys the use of light ,
rectangular wire even during the early stages of treatment.
Rectangular wires are preferable over round wires because they can
be better oriented in the bracket in such a way that forces work out
in proper directions.
They further increase patient comfort by avoiding loops.
3.The selection of an appropriate alloy type & wire size may reduce
the no of archwires needed for alignment by reducing bracket /
wire play early in treatment.

Accuracy of 3rd order bends of NiTi & the

effects of high and low pressure during
memorizing heat treatment

Thomas stamm-ajo-2004
This study evaluated the Accuracy of 3rd order bends of NiTi
wires and determined the effects of high and low pressure for
maintaining the wire shape during memorizing heat
treatment.
A computer aided bending machine was used to incorporate
200 randomly determined torsional angles between 0 &60
into 30linear 0.016* 0.022 in Neosentalloy wires.
Results showed that 3rd order bends <30 can be made with
adequate
clinical accuracy with an error of 1 irrespective of pressure
applied.

With bends > 30 but < 40, the method with higher
pressure
offers greater precision than that with the lower pressure.
With torque bends > 40, the bending error with both
methods is
clinically unacceptable.
In general force applied to keep the wire in its bent shape
during
the memorizing heat treatment has an effect on the
accuracy of 3rd
order bends. Heat treatment methods that cannot keep the
wire in
its 3D shape should not be used.

Characterization and cytotoxicity of ions

released from SS & NiTi alloys- Theodore
Eliades- Ajo 2004

The purpose of this study was to qualitatively & quantitatively

characterize the substances released from orthodontic brackets &
NiTi wires and to comparatively assess the cytotoxicity of the ions
released from these orthodontic alloys.
Two full sets of SS brackets of 20 brackets each and 2 groups of
0.018*
0.025 NiTi archwires of 10 wires each were immersed in 0.9%
saline
solution for a month.
Human periodontal ligament fibroblasts & gingival fibroblasts were
exposed to various concentrations of the two immersion media,
Nickel
chloride was used as a positive control for comparasion purpose.

The results indicated that no ionic release for the NiTi aging
solution, where as measurable nickel & traces of chromium
were
found in the SS bracket aging medium.
Concentration of the nickel chloride solution greater than
2mm
were found to reduce by more than 50% the viability & DNA
synthesis of fibroblasts. However neither orthodontic
materials
derived media had any effect on the survival & DNA
synthesis of
either cell.

NEWER ARCH WIRES

TIMOLIUM WIRES
A new entry into the area of titanium based alloys .
It is also termed alloy.
Composition:
Titanium 89.9%
Aluminium 6.1 %
Vanadium 3.2 %
Molybdenum 0.3 %
Zirconium 0.3 %
Tin 0.4%
It is shown that this alloy has a smooth surface texture, less
friction at
archwire - bracket interface & better strength & superior
welding qualities
than existing Ti based alloys.

Kusy et al AJO 2004 Nov studied the surface roughness of 6 Ti

based wires & found that Timolium wires exhibited poor surface
qualities with formation of sheets with visible steps or fissures on
pulling the wire against resistance in a linear direction.
Vinod Krishnan et al Angle 2004 April evaluated the weld
characteristics of 3 archwires namely SS, titanium &
Timolium wires .The rank order of wires in descending order of
their mean values for strength on tensile evaluation of the weld
joint was titanium, SS, Timolium . Thus timolium wires
exhibited very low tensile shear test values of the three wires
tested.
On surface evaluation timolium has better surface properties . The
weld surface of timolium exhibited a smooth & symmetrical flow of
the alloy , less surface distortions & an intact weld surface.

SUPERCABLE
Hanson combined the mechanical advantage of
multistranded
cables with properties of superelastic wires to create a
superelastic
NiTi Coaxial wire called Supercable.
It contains 7 individual strand woven together to
maximize
flexibility and minimize force delivery.
ADVANTAGES:
Eliminates archwire bending.
Effective to control rotations, tipping & in
levelling.
Can use in severe crowding
Minimal patient discomfort & fewer visits.

TITANIUM NIOBIUM WIRES

This alloy is an innovative archwire designed for

precision
- tooth finishing . The unique metallargical
properties of this wire make it the most precise
intraoral
detailing wire.
This alloy has low spring back ( = SS ) & is much less
stiffer than TMA. At 80% of the stiffness of TMA , it is
perfect for holding bends. Though it is soft & pliable it
possess a resiliency after bending equal to SS.

COMBINED WIRES
Jose' L. Zuriarrain, et al -AJO 1996 Dec used

Combining mechanics
The key to success in a multi attachment straight
wire system is to have the ability to use light tipping
movements in combination with rigid translation and
to be able to vary the location of either, at any time
the need arises during treatment.
They used three specific combined wires for the
technique; Dual Flex-l, Dual Flex-2, and Dual Flex-3
(Lancer Orthodontics).

The Dual Flex-1 consists of a front section made of 0.016-inch

round Titanal and a posterior section made of 0.016-inch
round
steel. The flexible front part easily aligns the anterior teeth
and the
rigid posterior part maintains the anchorage and molar
control by
means of the "V" bend, mesial to the molars. It is used at the
beginning of treatment.
The Dual Flex-2 consists of a flexible front segment composed
of
an 0.016 0.022-inch rectangular Titanal and a rigid posterior
segment of round 0.018-inch steel.

The Dual Flex-3, however, consists of a flexible

front part of an
0.017 0.025-inch Titanal rectangular wire and a
posterior part of
0.018 square steel wire. The Dual Flex-2 and 3
wires establish
anterior anchorage and control molar rotation
during the closure of
posterior spaces. They also initiate the anterior
torque.
All wires have elastic hooks.

COMPOSITE WIRES
The arch wire is one of the main component of
multibracketed appliance, is usually made of metal
materials like SS , NiTi etc which are esthetically
inferior .The no of adult orthodontic patients are
steadily increasing & there is a demand for more
esthetic appliance. This laid the foundation for
inventing esthetic composite wires .

There are two kind of arch wires have been

produced to improve
esthetics.
1. It is a metal wire with white colored teflon
( poly tetra fluoro ethylene ) or epoxy resin
2. Fiber Reinforced Plastic orthodontic wire: ( FRP
) Its made of translucent composite material like
poly methyl metha acrylate (PMMA) as matrix
It is commercially available as OPTIFLEX.

1. A silicon dioxide core that provides the force for

moving teeth.
2. A silicon resin middle layer that protects the
core from moisture and adds strength.
3. A stain-resistant nylon outer layer that prevents
damage to the wire and further increases its

The wire can be either round or rectangular and is manufactured

in various sizes. Its mechanical properties include a wide range
of
action and the ability to apply light, continuous force.
Sharp bends must be avoided, since they could fracture the core.
Otherwise, Optiflex has practically no deformation. It is a highly
resilient archwire that is especially effective in the alignment of
crowded teeth
Advantages:
1.Improved esthetics
2.Capability to vary the stiffness of the wire without changing the
cross
section of the wire allows the clinician to use Variable modulus
method.
3.Allergic reactions to nickel is also avoided with composite
wires.

COATED WIRES
An investigation of the frictional properties of composite wires
against several orthodontic brackets showed that reinforcement
fibers were abrasively worn from the wire surfaces when tests
were
conducted at high normal forces or angulations. This potential
release of glass fibers within the oral cavity was considered
unacceptable, and a polymeric surface coating was suggested as
a
potential remedy.
The prerequisites for this coating material was that it should be
easily applicable in thin layers, be wear-resistant, and have low
frictional characteristics. In addition, the coating material
needed to
be biocompatible and transparent. One material that exhibited
all of
these properties was poly chloro-p-xylylene, which has been well
established for use in biomedical coating applications, such as
catheters and cardiac pacemakers.

Kusy et al ANGLE 2000 studied Sliding

Mechanics of Coated
Composite Wires to determine the effects of
poly(chloro-p-xylylene)
surface coatings on archwire sliding mechanics,
the tri biological
(friction and wear) characteristics of coated
composite wires were
evaluated.
This finding implies that the risk of glass fiber
release during
clinical use would be eliminated by the coating.

conclusion
Recent advances in material science and technology has
resulted in an
array of newer arch wire materials, opening new vistas in
orthodontic
treatment. Materials with widely diverging properties are
on the market
today and their usage has profound implications on
appliance mechanics.
So it is upto the orthodontist to clearly outline the phases
of treatment
and select the arch wire most suited for attaining specific
goal of
treatment.