Wheat Chemistry & Technology

Unit 1: Production, quality and milling

Production and Utilization
Classification, Structure and Composition
Drying, Grading and Storage
Criteria of Wheat Grain Quality
Physical Criteria
Chemical Criteria
Wheat Milling

Aims of Milling

General Process

Milling Machinery
2

Production of Wheat in the World

Production (600-650 million tonnes per annum).
India is the 2nd largest wheat producing country next to
China.
Wheat is a main staple food as 65 % of produced are directly
used as food for humans, 21% as a live stock feed , 8% as
seed material, and remaining 6% as industrial raw material.
95% wheat is Triticum aestivum (hexaploid type); 5% are
durum (tetraploid).
Normal world productivity is 2.8 tonnes/hectare.
Major Wheat producers (75% of world production ): China,
India, USA, Russia, Canada, Australia, France, Iran,
3
Pakistan, Turkey, UK, Argentina, and Italy.

Share of countries in terms of area and production of wheat worldwide

Country

Area (%)

Country

Production (%)

China

13.19

China

18.41

India

12.5

India

12.05

USA

10.38

USA

10.97

Russian Fed.

9.21

France

6.52

Australia

5.56

Russian Fed.

5.36

Canada

4.95

Canada

4.43

Turkey

4.13

Australia

3.76

Pakistan

3.87

Pakistan

3.29

Argentina

2.71

Turkey

3.08

Iran

2.54

United Kingdom

2.68

France

2.42

Argentina

2.51

Italy

1.08

Iran

1.57

Spain

1.04

Italy

1.34

United Kingdom

0.92

Egypt

1.08

Romania

0.87

Spain

1.02

Syria

0.78

Romania

0.81

Egypt

0.47

Syria

0.56

Bangladesh

0.39

Bangladesh

0.32

Others

23.00

Others

20.24

Wheat production in India

Wheat is grown over an area of about 28 million
hectares with annual production of about 72-82 million
tonnes.
Normal National
tonnes/hectare.

productivity

is

about

2.8

Major wheat producing States (99% production): Uttar

Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka,
West Bengal, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu & Kashmir.
Wheat in India stands next to rice, both in area and
production.
5

Share of States in terms of area & wheat

production
State

Area (%)

State

Production
(%)
33.7

Uttar Pradesh

33.8

Uttar Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

14.8

Punjab

21.2

Punjab

12.7

Haryana

12.9

Rajasthan

9.7

Madhya Pradesh

9.6

Haryana

8.7

Rajasthan

8.9

Bihar

7.8

Bihar

6.2

Maharashtra

3.5

Maharashtra

1.7

Gujarat

1.8

Gujarat

1.6

Uttaranchal

1.5

West Bengal

1.2

West Bengal

1.5

Uttaranchal

1.0

Himachal
Pradesh
Others

1.4

Himachal Pradesh

0.8

2.8

Others

1.2

UTILIZATION Of
WHEAT
Wheat is the staple food due to its
relatively easy harvesting, storing,
transportation and processing.
Only wheat flour (to limited extent rye
flour) has ability to form dough that
retains gases &produces a baked product.
Various wheat products : breads, cakes,
noodles, crackers, breakfast foods,
biscuits, cookies, chapatti, macaroni,
spaghetti,
pizzas,
doughnuts,
confectionary items, semolina , rava or
sooji, Vermicelli etc.

Classification of wheat
Five major categories (differ in quality characteristics that
reflected in uses of their milled products).
i.

Bread Wheat (Triticum

hexaploid species

aestivum):

ii.

Club Wheat (Triticum Compactum):

kernels have a soft texture and low
protein content (cake, pastry).

iii. Durum Wheat (Triticum durum):

tetraploid wheat (pasta, semolina).
iv. Einkorn
Wheat
(Triticum
monococcum):diploid species
v.

Spelt
Wheat
hexaploid species

(Triticum

spelta):
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Wheat Structure

Three major parts of wheat kernel:

i.Endosperm:
80-85% of kernel weight;
Source of flour;
Rich in carbohydrate , protein, iron , B-vitamins and fiber.
ii. Bran:
15% of kernel weight
Outer coat of kernel; composed of pericarp, epidermis, hypodermis,
tube cells, seed coat testa, and hyaline layer .
Contains protein, fibers, B vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and
phytochemicals
iii. Germ:
2-3% of kernel weight:
Consists of plumule, scutellum, radical, root sheath and root cap.
9
Rich source of B vitamins, oil, vitamin E.

10

Composition of wheat
Mature wheat grain composed of carbohydrates, fat,
protein, fiber, minerals and water.
Starch is found mainly in endosperm
Crude fiber is found in bran.
Protein is distributed throughout the grain.
About half of the total lipids are in endosperm, one fifth
in germ and the rest in bran.
Aleurone is rich in minerals. More than half of the total
minerals of wheat grain are present in pericarp, testa and
aleurone.
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Chemical composition of wheat

Compon Whole Endosperm Germ
ent
wheat

Aleurone Bran
layer

Protein,
%

8.016.0

6.0-16.0

18.0-24.0

2.87.6

Ash, %

1.8

0.5-0.8

3.5-9.5 11.0-17.0

1.75.0

Fibre, %

9.0

1.5

8.5

43.0

17.073.0

Lipids,
%

2.2

1.6-2.0

5.018.5

6.0-9.9

0.01.0

Starch,
%

59.2

63.4-72.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

24.030.0

12

Drying of wheat
Dry, sound wheat can be kept for years if properly
stored.
At harvesting time, grain contains 8-20% moisture.
Grains are dried to 12-13% moisture content for long
storage.
In dry areas, wheat contains 8-9% moisture. Water
can be added to raise it to 12-13% (desirable level)
Three different systems to dry wheat:
i. natural-air drying bin
ii. low-temperature dryers (less than 40C)
iii. high-temperature or high-speed dryers (temp.
greater than 40C)
13

Drying of wheat

14

Storage
Moisture & temp. are main factors that influence grain quality
grains during storage.
Insect growth & spoilage related to moisture and temp. of stored
wheat.
Proper storage needed to avoid grain damage from insects,
moisture or other adverse storage conditions. :
Plant inspection, good housekeeping, fumigation
Heat treatment of the facility can control infestation
Killing all kinds of insects in bins prior to storage of grains in
bins.
Temp. of 50-55 C in all parts of mill for 10-12 hrs is sufficient to
destroy all insect.

15

Grading

Objectives of a grading is to ensure uniform quality so

that products can be priced to satisfy the interests of both
the producer and the consumer.

Wheat grading factors : kernel weight, damaged kernels,

shrunken & broken kernels, foreign materials and other
seeds

Max. permissible limits of diff. grading factors for wheat

Foreign
matter
(%)

Other
grains
(%)

Damaged
grains
(%)

Shriveled and
broken
grains (%)

0.75

2.0

2.0

7.0
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CRITERIA OF WHEAT GRAIN QUALITY

Wheat varieties vary in their morphological, physical and
chemical characteristics.
A. Physical Criteria
i.

Test Weight (Weight

per Unit Volume)

ii. Thousand Kernel

Weight

B. Chemical Criteria
i.

Moisture content

ii. Protein Content

iii. Protein quality

iii. Kernel Size and Shape

iv. Alpha-Amylase
Activity

iv. Kernel Hardness

v. Ash Content
17

Test Weight (Weight per Unit Volume)

Most widely used and simplest criteria of wheat quality.
Determines plumpness of grain.
A rough measure of density of grain in terms of weight per unit
volume.
Expressed in kilogram per hectoliter. kg/hL (100 L).

Thousand Kernel Weight

Predicts milling quality and is a function of kernel size/density.

Large & dense wheat kernels have a higher ratio of endosperm to
non-endosperm components than smaller & less dense kernels.
Wheat varieties giving higher kernel wt. give higher flour yield.
Electronic counter is used for measuring and Expressed in
gms/1,000 kernels
Kernel wt: bread wheat :30-45 gms; durum wheat 35-55 gms.
18

Kernel Size and Shape

Variation in wheat depends on internal and external factors
(associated with growth and maturing stages).
Kernel size related to kernel weight and effect flour yield.
Size distribution of kernels can be determined using a stack of
sieves.
Based on kernel wt. Wheat grain may be : small (< 32.0g),
medium (32.0-38.0g) and bold (>38.0g),
Based on shape wheat grain may be round, ovate, oblong and
elliptical.
Shape of grain has great influence on milling quality of grain.

19

Kernel Hardness
Based on hardness, Wheat grain is classified : hard & soft.
Kernel hardness is related to disintegration of endosperm during
its separation from bran and germ.
Hard grains yields more flour.
Most part of aleurone layer in soft wheat remains attached with
endosperm
Hardness relates to milling performance of wheat.
Flour particles from soft wheat is fluffy; smaller size.
Flow characteristic of soft wheat flour is poor.
Hard wheat requires more grinding force and thus produces flour
with high starch damage suitable for bread making.
Hardness can be measured by grinding resistance, particle size
index, NIR, penetrometer testing, SKCS,
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Moisture Content
Most important parameter in judging wheat quality.
Inversely related to amount of dry matter in wheat.
Effect keeping quality of wheat.
Dry, sound wheat can be kept for years ; wet wheat
may deteriorate dramatically within a few days.
At the time of harvest, moisture content of grain is 813% depending upon climatic conditions.
Moisture content can be measured by air oven
method, Karl Fischer method, electric moisture meter
method etc
21

Protein Content
Protein content ranges from 6% to 18% depending upon
variety, class and environmental conditions during growth.
Flour should have at least 10% protein for production of
yeast leavened bread. (wheat must contain at least 11%
protein) .
Wheat grain with 8-10% protein is suitable for biscuits
flour productions.
Cookies require a softer type of flour, which provides for
structure building and leavening.
Quantity of gluten in flour influences flour strength.
Determination of protein content: Kjeldahl, NIR, etc.
22

Protein requirement of different wheat

products
Wheat protein content Type of wheat End product
(%)

13.0 and above

Durum

Macaroni products

11.5-13.0

Hard

Pan bread

10.0-11.0

Hard

Crackers

8.0-10.0

Soft

Biscuits, pies
cookies

and
23

Protein Quality
Quality of protein plays significant role in the
functionality of the wheat flour
Protein quality can be determined by a qualitative
estimation of gluten.
Different types of chemical tests: SDS sedimentation
volume, baking test of gluten, etc.

24

Alpha-Amylase
Activity

Diastatic or amylolytic activity is very important quality of flour.

Diastatic enzymes comprise -amylase and -amylase.
Normally Indian wheat flours contain sufficient amount of
-amylase but lack in -amylase.
Sprouting of wheat increases -amylase in flour.
-amylase exerts a major effect on both dough properties & final
bread characteristics.
Flour supplementation with -amylase results in a bread with
improved crust color, finer texture and increased volume.
Excessive malting decrease water absorption, impart stickiness to
dough, cause slackening of dough, reduce loaf volume and produce
inferior grain and texture in baked product.
Can be determined by Amylograph, falling no test. Etc.

25

Ash Content
1.4 to 2.0 % ash in wheat on 14% moisture basis.
Ash content reflects quantity of mineral matter present in flour.
Bran & aleurone layer have higher ash content than endosperm.
Higher bran contamination in flour indicates higher ash
content.
Small or shriveled kernels have more bran percentage.
Milled products having higher ash content, are darker in colour.
Ash test is of greater importance in milling trade than any other
test for control of milling operations.
Factors influencing flour ash: environmental factors, genetic
make up of wheat variety and milling conditions such as
26
tempering and grinding.

WHEAT MILLING
Aims of Milling :

to separate bran & germ of wheat kernel from

endosperm

to grind separated endosperm into suitable particle

size of flour.

Extraction rate refers to flour yield from a given

quantity of wheat.
An extraction rate of 100% indicates 100% of wheat
grain is delivered as flour (whole-wheat meal).
Commercial grade flour has 70% extraction rate, is
known as straight-grade flour.
Efficiency of milling process depends upon type of
wheat, milling equipments and skill and experience of
miller.

27

Milling Process
Steps: receiving of wheat, cleaning, blending, storage,
tempering/conditioning, breaking, sieving, purification and
reduction.
Tempering: process of adjustment of moisture level (15-17%) of
wheat grains before milling.
Milling system consists of break rolls and reduction rolls .
Break rolls open wheat grains from its crease and scrape endosperm.
Reduction rolls grind large endosperm particles into flour.
Rolls diameters ranges from 180 to 350mm and length upto 1.5m l.
Break rolls rotate at about 650 rpm, reduction rolls at about 500 rpm.
Differentials speed: 2.5:1 to 1.5:1 in break & reduction rolls.
Milling by-products (25% of grain): bran, germ, clean out of
cleaning house.
28

29

Milling Machinery- Roller Flour Mill

Consists of two pairs of cast-iron rolls

mounted in a heavy cast-iron frame.
Rolls have diameter of 225 to 250mm
and lengths of 61 to 125 cm.
Rotate in opposite directions at
differential speed.
Lower roll moves at lower speed than
upper roller, thus shearing action is
produced on grains.
Break rolls have flutes or corrugations
along length of roll, whereas reduction
rolls have smooth surface.
30

Milling Machinery- Stone Mill (Atta Chakki)

Grain passes between a pair of stones
One stone rotates while other remains
stationary.
Stones may be placed vertically or
horizontally.
Causes more damaged starch in flour.
Mill stones frequently rub against
each other resulting in small stone
particles chipping off and mix into
flour.
31

Pin Mill
Wheat grains are gravity fed through
centrally located inlet of mill .
Grain is passed through a pair of
plates which have protruding pins.
One plate runs against a stationary
plate.
Fine meal is then forced through
screen by air due to high speed of
plate rotation.
Varying rotor speed between a few
hundred rpm to 5400 rpm provides
flexibility to use the machine as a
coarse grinding or a fine grinding
mill.

32

Hammer Mill
Consists of swiveled metal blades that grind
grain by smashing it against a metal screen.
Run at very high speed and fine meal is
forced through screen by air due to high
speed of hammers.
A hammer mill contains a steel drum with a
vertical or horizontal rotating shaft on
which hammers are mounted.
Rotor is spun at a high speed inside drum
while material is fed into a feed hopper.
Material is impacted by hammer bars and
thereby grinding takes place and expelled
through screens in the drum of a selected
size.

33

Unit 2:WHEAT FLOUR CONSTITUENTS

Flour Composition
Functionality of Flour Constituents
Proteins
Lipids
Starch
Enzymes
Manufacturing of Wheat Gluten
General Process
Industrial Process
Uses and Functionality of Gluten
34

FLOUR COMPOSITION
Wheat flour is a complex mixture of starch, proteins, lipids,
pentosans, enzymes and enzyme inhibitors and other minor
components.
Flour Constituents

Range

Moisture (%)

8.0-14.0

Ash (%)

0.2-0.8

Protein (%)

8.0-15.0

Lipids (%)

1.0-1.5

Wet gluten (%)

24.0-45.0

Dry gluten (%)

7.1-13.7
35

WHEAT PROTEINS IN FLOUR

36

Classification of wheat gluten proteins

37

 Native proteins of flour during mixing interact to form a

chewing gum type of wet mass- wet gluten.
Gliadin becomes a viscous liquid when hydrated and
imparts extensibility, allowing dough to rise during
fermentation
Glutenin provides elasticity and strength, preventing
dough from being over-extended and collapsing either
during fermentation or in baking.

38

Role of Proteins in Bread Making

Dough properties & bread making performance of flours are
related to quantity and quality of proteins.
Doughs that are too elastic and inextensible or vice versa
give poorer bread making performance.
Molecular size of proteins is also related with functional
properties of flour.
Glutenin proteins with longer mixing times have a higher
average molecular weight than the glutenin proteins of short
mixing flours.
Flours with short mixing times give doughs that break down
rapidly during mixing and easily extensible- unsuitable for
39
bread.

Role of Proteins in Biscuits,

Cakes & Cookies
Soft wheat with lower protein content produces flour suitable
for cookie
Extensibility is a desirable for biscuit & cookie dough, gliadin
proteins in flour is desirable.
Higher amounts of Glutenin make dough stronger and elastic,
not suitable for sheet formation.
Higher proportion of gliadin and lesser glutenin proteins in
flour is desirable for biscuit and cookie.
Cookie diameter & cake volume correlate positively with soft
textured wheat (lower protein contents and smaller particle
40
size).

Lipids in Wheat flour

Polar lipids are dominated by phospholipids and glycoor galactolipids.
Non-polar lipids are triglycerides, and they are solid at
room temperature.
Wheat flour lipids constitute about 2% by weight of flour
but make important contribution to dough properties,
baking behaviour and bread staling.
Some lipids in wheat remain bound to starch component
and thus such lipids are called starch lipids
41

Role of Lipids in Bread Quality

Lipids interact with proteins of gluten complex and form large
aggregates which contribute to baking quality of wheat flours.
Polar lipids improve texture and loaf volume of bread
substantially, making bread softer and fresher.
Polar lipids in association with surface-active proteins act as gas
cell stabilizers. These create a thin layer of foam on interface of
dough.
Non-polar lipids (free fatty acids ) depress loaf volume of bread
making it compact and less acceptable.
Flour dough lacking in polar lipids develop large bubbles at
early stage of oven baking & collapse due to instability of gas
cells.
Lipids prevent bread hardening by preventing retrogradation of
42
starch molecules.

Role of Lipids in Biscuit, Cookies

and Cake

Lipid extracted flour causes reduced spread and top grain

score in Cookies.
Cookie spread and top grain score are improved as lipids
are added to flour up to four times the natural level.
Lipids have starch-binding action, when lipids are
extracted from flour, starch gelatinization temp. is
decreased and gelatinization of starch takes place in the
early stages of baking which prevents spreading of
cookies.
Lipids play a role in foam production and stability of cake
batter.
43

Starch in wheat flour

It represents 65-75 % of flour.
Starch particles are granules. A- granules & B-granules.
Starch granules are composed of amylose & amylopectin.
Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose linked by (14)
glycosidic linkages.
Amylopectin is a branched glucose polymer having (14) and
(16) glycosidic linkages.
Amylose: Amylopectin in wheat= 30 :70 .
Type of
granule

Size

Average
Diameter
(m)

A-granule
B-granule

Bigger 14
Smaller 4

% of
Starch

% total of
number of
granule

75
25

10
90
44

Functions of Starch in Bakery Products

Starch provides yeast fermentable sugars through the action

of amylases.

Starch-protein interactions contributes to stability of gas cells

in bread baking. It helps in setting final texture of baked
products.

Furnishes surface suitable for anti-sticky proteins

(friabilins) that affects hardness of grains.

Starch at temp. above 180C, gets converted into dextrin that

undergo caramelization and contributes to crust colour of
bakery products.
Starch dilutes gluten to desirable consistency, thus increasing
starch content in flour increases diameter and spread of
cookies.

45

Gelatinization of starch in baked product

Absorption of water by starch granules and its swelling

Change of shape and size of starch granules

Leaching of amylose or amylopectin from granules

Formation of a gel or a paste due to increase in viscosity

Setting of texture of bakery products during baking.

46

Role of Damaged Starch in Bakery Products

Damaged starch is one that has been physically damaged
during wheat milling process .
Wheat flour having higher proportion of damaged starch
has higher amylolytic or diastatic activity.
Lesser value causes poor gas production capacity of a
flour, whereas higher value may lead to excess gas .
Water holding capacity of damaged starch increases four
times of normal starch.
Desired level of damaged starch for bread production is 79%.
For cookie & biscuit, damaged starch should be < 7%.
47

Influence of Starch on Bread Staling

Bread staling refers to firming or hardening of bread during
storage.
Staling rate is recorded max. at 4C.
Retrogradation of starch contributes to hardening.
Water level of 20 to 30% is required for retrogradation of
starch. As bread contains 40% moisture, starch retrogradation
occurs readily .
Starch retrogradation changes A-pattern of native starch to Bpattern.
Water holding capacity of B-pattern of starch is poor and hence
breadcrumb looses water and becomes harder.
Freshness of bread can be resumed on heating above 45C.48

Role of Enzymes in Bakery

Products

Wheat grains contain a large number of enzymes.

Many enzymes are found in aleurone, bran and germ.

Flour rich in bran and dietary fibre may be rich in

endogenous enzymes

A combination of various enzymes have a positive

effect on volume, colour, taste, aroma, crust and crumb
texture, crumb softness, freshness and shelf life of
baked product.

Enzymes: Alpha-Amylase;
Hemicellulase

Amyloglucosidase;

49

Alpha-amylase
Alpha-amylase hydrolyses starch in to sugars, which are
fermented by yeast.
Enzyme- induced changes in dough rheology are also a
major reason for increased bread volume.
Alpha-amylase also delays bread staling rate : it
produces low molecular weight branched-chain starch
polymers as hydrolysis products, which interfere with
amylopectin recrystallization.

50

Amyloglucosidase
This enzyme liberates glucose from chain ends and
capable of hydrolyzing branched starch molecules
(amylopectin). It is used to give crust color and flavor as
liberated glucose participates in Maillard reactions.

Hemicellulase
Endoxylanase and exoxylanase
(hemicellulase) use
hemicellulose as a substrate.
Hemicellulase hydrolyses arabinoxylan and releases water
in dough. So, dough becomes softer, and its machine
ability is improved.
During baking, crumb formation is delayed, and better
rise of dough in oven gives the bread larger volume and a
51
softer, more delicate crumb.

Manufacturing Techniques of Wheat Gluten

Wheat gluten is water-insoluble complex protein, which
is separated from wheat flours.
Separation process is accomplished by physical means
from aqueous flour suspensions without additives.
In its freshly extracted wet form it is known as gum
gluten which when dried yields a cream coloured, free
flowing powder of high protein content (75-80%) and
bland taste.
When rehydrated, it regains its original intrinsic
viscoelastic properties, i.e. chewing gum like properties.
52

Gluten manufature- general process

53

Gluten manufature- Industrial Process

In Martin process: Dough is developed, then rested
under water and washed later with water.
In Raisio process: flour is just slurried with excess of
water and gluten seperated.
Martin process uses more water for separation of gluten,
hence affluent generation is more in this process.
International Standard for Wheat Gluten Powder
Parameters
Protein (dry basis)
Moisture
Ash
Fat (Ether Extracted)
Fibre

Limits
80% Min
10% Max
2.0%Max
2.0%Max
1.5%Max

54

Functionality of Gluten
Gluten has unique physical properties:
i. Viscoelastic properties improve dough strength, mixing
tolerance and handling properties in a bread making
process.
ii. Film forming property of hydrated gluten is a result of its
elasticity. This ability of gluten enhances gas retention and
controlled expansion for improved volume, uniformity and
texture of baked products.
iii.Thermosetting properties contribute necessary structural
rigidity and bite characteristics;
iv.High water absorption capacity improves baked product
yield, softness and shelf-life.
55

Uses of Gluten
The most fundamental use of vital wheat gluten is in
adjustment of flour protein level.
In hamburger and hot dog buns: gluten can be used to
improve strength of hinge.
In flaked cereals: gluten provides not only nutritional
claims but also helps bind any vitamin-mineral enrichment
components to cereal grain during processing.
Used in breakfast cereals, pasta, nutritional snacks,
extruded ground meat products, textured protein, meat
analogs and fabricated steaks.
56

Unit 3: Dough Rheology

Basic concepts
Principles and measurement of dough
rheology by
Recording dough mixers,
Load extensio- meter
Viscometer.

57

DOUGH RHEOLOGY
Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter.
Dough Rheology - concerned with viscosity, deformation,
and texture of dough.
Rheological properties determines behaviour of dough
during mechanical handling; influences finished product
quality.
Rheological tests:
Fundamental tests: for Viscosity and elasticity
Empirical tests : Mixograph; Farinograph; Extensiograph etc
58

Basic concepts of dough mixing

Mixing curve showing hydration, development and break-down

phases of wheat flour dough

59

Physical properties of dough

1.Resistance to deformation
2.Extensibility
3.Elasticity
4.Stickiness

60

Dough Rheology Instruments

1. Recording dough Mixers: measure the power needed
to mix wheat dough and measure the resistance of
dough to mixing blades
e.g. Farinograph and Mixograph.
2. Load extension meters: measures extensibility and
resistance to extension of dough
e.g. Extensograph and Alveo-consistograph.

3. Viscometer: measures the viscosity of a wheat flour

water suspension under standard condition of heating
and cooling
e.g. Viscoamylograph.
61

Mixograph
Mixograph may or may not be computerized.
Computerized Mixograph is suitable for analysing
dough properties from a 2g flour sample.
Computerized Mixograph is supported by software
Mixsmart for automated collection of data and
interpretation of results.
Mixing action: four vertical planetary pins revolve at
a speed of 88 rpm around three stationary pins in the
bottom of the bowl.
Power required to mix the dough is recorded.
62

Mixograph

63

Mixing curve showing Mixograph parameters

Mixing time = AB
Peak dough resistance = AC
Bandwidth at peak dough
resistance = EF
Resistance breakdown = GC
Mixing stability = HI
Bandwidth breakdown = EF-HI
Work input = ADB

64

Mixograph Parameters and dough

quality

Mixing time: A mixing time of 3-5 min is considered

suitable for bread. Flour having mixing time less than 3
min is suitable for biscuit and cookie.
Peak Dough Resistance (PDR): has direct relationship
with bread making quality of flour. Biscuit flour generally
has lower PDR value.
Bandwidth at PDR : A narrow width is an indication of
dough weakness. Weak flour is recommended for
biscuits and strong flour for bread making.
Resistance and Bandwidth Breakdowns: Very steep left
or right slopes of PDR are undesirable; indicates a flour
with low mixing tolerance.
Mixing Stability(MS): high MS desirable for bread ,
biscuit dough.
65

Farinograph
A Farinograph is a recording dough mixer.
It measures resistance offered by dough against mixing
blades operating at a constant speed and temp.
Parameters obtained from resulting curve relate to amount
of water required to reach a desired peak consistency.
2g to 300g of flour (14% oisture) is placed in Farinograph
bowl. Water is added from a burette.
As flour hydrates- dough develops- resistance on mixing
blades increases- pen on chart recorder or curve on
computer screen rises.
Ensure that Farinograph bandwidth at max. resistance is
always centered on 500 Brabender unit line (by adjusting
amount of flour and water).
66

Farinograph

67

Interpretation of Farinograph Curve

Farinograph water absorption value: amount of water added to
balance the curve on 500-BU line, expressed as a percentage of
flour. Water absorption value varies from about 50% for cookie
and biscuit flour and around 60% for bread flour.
Dough development time/mixing time/peak time: time between
origin of curve and its max. it is the point at which dough is
optimally developed and best able to retain gas.
Mixing tolerance index: It is measured as difference (in
Brabender units) between the top of curve at the max. and the
point on the curve 5 minute later.
Dough stability: It is defined as the difference in minutes
between arrival time and departure time.
68

Farinograph curve

69

70

Extensograph
It measures the extensibility and resistance to
extension of fully mixed, relaxed flour-water dough.
Force required to stretch the dough is automatically
plotted against the distance it stretches to give
extensograph curve.
Dough is stretched under constant load and there is
constant speed of moving hook, which stretches the
dough.

71

Procedure

Prepare dough in farinograph using 150g or 300 g of

flour, water and salt.

Mix for 1 min, then allow to rest for 5 min, again mix
for 2 min.

Weigh 150 g dough and give it 20 revolutions in

extensograph rounder. Roll it into a cylindrical piece in a
shaping unit.

Each dough cylinder is clamped in a cradle and allowed

to rest for 45 min in a humidity chamber (at 30C).
Then, it is loaded on to extensograph and stretched.

After test, same dough is reshaped as before, allowed

resting for 45 min and stretched again. Generally 3
72
stretching curves obtained by repeating same procedure.

73

Extensograph values
Extensibility (E): Length of the curve in millimeters.
Resistance to extension (R): Height of extensograph
in B.U. measured 5 cm after the curve has started.
Ratio figure: Ratio between resistance and
extensibility i.e. R/E
Strength value: Area of curve - Measured by
Planimeter. More the area, stronger is the dough.
Area under the curve (cm2)
80
80-120
120-200
>200

Dough strength
Weak
Medium strong
Strong
Extra strong

74

Extensograph curve

75

Alveo-consistograph
It evaluates the strength of dough by measuring the
force required to blow and break a bubble of dough.
It is well suited for measuring the weak dough
characteristics.
Weak dough with low P value (strength of dough) and
long L value (extensibility) is preferred for biscuits,
cakes and other confectionery products.
Strong dough flour have high P values and is preferred
for breads.

76

Procedure

100g flour is mixed with a salt solution to form dough.

Five 4.5 cm circular dough sheets are formed and then rested in
alveograph in a temp.-regulated compartment at 25 C for 20
minutes.
Each dough sheet is tested individually. The alveoconsistograph
blows air into a dough sheet, which expands into a bubble that
eventually breaks.
Pressure inside the bubble is recorded.

77

Alveo-Consistograph Curve

78

Alveoconsistograph values &

dough quality
P Value: force required to blow the bubble of dough. indicated by
max height of curve and is expressed in mm.
L Value: extensibility of dough before the bubble breaks.
indicated by length of curve and is expressed in mm.
P/L Ratio: It is the balance between dough strength and
extensibility.
W Value: area under curve. (combination of P value and L value)
and is expressed in joules.
Weak gluten flour has lower P values than strong gluten flour.
Stronger dough requires more force to blow and break the
bubble (higher P value).
A bigger bubble means the dough can stretch to a very thin
membrane before breaking. A bigger bubble indicates dough
has higher extensibility. A bigger bubble requires more force
and will have a greater area under the curve (W value).
79

VISCOMETER- VISCOAMYLOGRAPH
This instrument measures amylase
activity by physical measurement of
paste viscosity.
Consists of heating system and a bowl
(500 ml). has thermometer which is very
sensitive and has mechanism for temp
rise at rate of 1.5 C/min.
Bowl has sensor to monitor temperature.
As temp. rises, starch granules swell and
viscosity begins to increase rapidly.
Max. paste consistency obtained during
gelatinization is used as a criterion of
amylase activity of flour.

80

Procedure

Make smooth slurry of 100g flour and 360ml water in beaker.

Pour slurry into viscoamylograph bowl. Rinse beaker with

100ml water and add to amylograph bowl.

Adjust starting temp to 30 C by hand, with clutch in natural

position. Set clutch on increase temperature position and start
viscoamylograph bowl in motion.

Viscosity of slurry is recorded on as temp rises from 30C 95C. Read max viscosity in Brabender Unit (B.U.) at centers
of peak.

Cooling system may be provided in viscoamylograph when

temp reaches to 95 C, give holding period of 15 min and let
temp come down to 50 C to record viscosity at different
temperatures.
81

Evaluation of viscoamylograph curve

B
U

82

Thank you
for attending
the session
83