Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Chemistry of
Biology
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Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nucleus
1 proton
1 electron
Hydrogen
Shells
Nucleus
proton
Nucleus
6 protons
6 neutrons Carbon
6 electrons
neutron
electron
(b)
Nucleus
1 proton
Hydrogen
1 electron
Shells
Nucleus
proton
Nucleus
(b)
6 protons
6 neutrons Carbon
6 electrons
neutron
electron
Characteristics of Elements
Atomic number number of
protons
Mass number number of
protons and neutrons
Isotopes variant forms of the
same element that differ in the
number of neutrons
Atomic weight average
mass numbers of all isotopic
forms
Electron orbitals volumes of
space surrounding the atomic
nucleus where electrons are
likely to be found
Shell
Hydrogen
Shell 2
Shell 1
Carbon
Orbitals
(a)
Nucleus
1 proton
1 electron
Hydrogen
Shells
Nucleus
proton
Nucleus
(b)
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
Carbon
neutron
electron
H
HYDROGEN
Atomic number
NITROGEN
Chemical name
OXYGEN
7p
1p
Number
Of e in
Each
Energy
level
Mg
12
MAGNESIUM
6
25
11
12p
Li
Be
Na
Mg
11p
Na
281
Ca
Rb
Sr
24
Ti
Ca
Cr
20
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ba
Fr
Ne
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Cl
Cu
Re
Os
Ir
17
CHLORINE
Zn
Ga
Gs
As
Se
Br
Kr
17p
15
16
Cl
SULFUR
Pt
287
Ra
15p
20p
Ca
19p
19
POTASSIUM
PHOSPHORUS
CALCIUM
Cs
282
Sc
P
SO
QN
26
6p
Mg
SODIUM
He
Na
8p
CARBON
16p
2882
285
286
AT. MASS 32.06
K
2881
AT. MASS 39.10
Concept Check:
If two atoms have the same number of protons and electrons
but different numbers of neutrons, they would be
A. Different elements
B. Isotopes of the same element
C. Ions of the same element
D. Orbitals of the same element
7
1. Covalent bonds
electrons are shared
among atoms
Covalent Bonds
Single
Double
Covalent Bonds
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H
e
H
e
1p
1p
Hydrogen atom
H2
1p
Hydrogen atom
H
Molecular oxygen (O2)
O O
Double bond
1p
H H
Single bond
1p+
H C H
H
8p+
8n
Hydrogen molecule
H
8p+
8n
1p+
6p+
6n
1p+
H
Methane (CH4)
1p+
10
Polarity
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()
()
H
8p+
H
O
1p+
(+)
(a)
1p+
(+)
(+)
(+)
(b)
11
2. Ionic bonds
electrons are
transferred to one
atom forming
positively charged
cations and
negatively charged
anions
Ionic Bond
(+)
()
12
Ionic Bonding
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Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2
1
Na
17p
18n
11p
12n
Cl
1
2
NaCl crystals
(a)
(b)
Na Cl
[Na]+ [Cl]
Na
1
Sodium
Na
Cl
Chloride
1
Na
Cl
(d)
Na
Cl
2
1
11p
Cl
Na
Na
Cl
Na
Cl2
(c)
Cl
Cl
Cl
Na
17p
(cation)
(anion)
13
Hydrogen Bond
Molecule A
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Water molecule
O
2
Hydrogen bonds
H
1
1
H
O
2
(+)
()
O
or
N
H
1
Molecule B
14
14
Concept Check:
Molecules where atoms share electrons contain
A. Covalent Bonds
B. Ionic Bonds
C. Hydrogen Bonds
15
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Energy exchange in cells is a result of the movement
of electrons from one molecule to another.
Oxidation the loss of electrons
Reduction the gaining of electrons
Redox reactions
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1
Na
28 1
Reducing agent
gives up electrons.
Cl
28 7
Oxidizing agent
accepts electrons.
Na
28
Oxidized cation
2
Cl
28 8
Reduced anion
16
Chemical Shorthand
Reactants - molecules starting a reaction
Products - substances left by a reaction
Synthesis reaction - the reactants bond together in a
manner that produces an entirely new molecule
S + O2
SO2
2H2O2
2H2O + O2
HCl + NaOH
NaCl + H2O
17
Solutions
Solution a mixture of one or more substances called
solutes, dispersed in a dissolving medium called a
solvent
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2
1
1
2
NaCl crystals
Solutes Na & Cl
+
Na
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Na
1
Cl
Cl
Cl
2
1
Solvent H2O
H
O
Na
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
11p
Cl
Cl
Na
17p
2
18
Aqueous Solutions
Hydrophilic molecules - dissolve in water
Hydrophobic molecules - repel water
Amphipathic molecules - have both hydrophilic
and hydrophobic properties
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Hydrogen
Oxygen
Water molecules
Na
Cl
19
0.
1
hy
dr
oc
hl
2.
or
0
ic
2. aci
ac
3 d
id
le s p
2. m ri
4 on ng
v
3. ine ju wa
0 g ice te
re ar
r
d
3.
w
in
5
e
s
4. aue
2
be rkra
4. er ut
6
a
5. cid
0
r
ch ain
ee
se
6.
0
yo
gu
rt
6.
6
co
7. w
0 's
d m
7. istil ilk
4
l
hu ed
8. ma wa
t
0
se n b er
8. aw lood
4
a
so ter
di
um
9.
bi
2
ca
bo
rb
ra
on
x,
at
al
e
ka
lin
10
e
so
.5
ils
m
ilk
of
m
11
ag
.5
ne
ho
si
a
us
e
ho
12
l
.4
d
am
lim
m
ew
on
13
at
ia
er
.2
ov
en
cl
ea
1
M
ne
po
r
ta
ss
iu
m
hy
dr
ox
id
e
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pH
Acidic
[H+]
Increasing
acidity
Neutral
10
[OH]
11
12
13
14
Basic
(alkaline)
Increasing
basicity
20
21
Concept Check:
If solution A has a pH of 2 and solution B has a pH of 4,
which of the following is true?
23
Linear
C
C
C 1 H
C H
Branched
C 1 O
C 1 N
C N
C 1 C
C C
C
(a)
C 1 C
C 1 N
C
Ringed
C
C
N
(b)
C
C
C
C
24
Accessory molecules
that bind to organic
compounds
Name
Can Be Found in
R*
Hydroxyl
Alcohols,
carbohydrates
Carboxyl
Amino
Ester
Lipids
Sulfhydryl
Carbonyl,
terminal end
Aldehydes,
polysaccharides
Carbonyl,
internal
Ketones,
polysaccharides
Phosphate
H
O
C
OH
H
Confer unique
reactive properties on
the whole molecule
NH2
H
O
R
C
O
H
R
SH
H
O
R
C
H
O
C
O
P
OH
OH
25
Macromolecules
Biochemicals are organic compounds produced
by living things
Macromolecules: large compounds assembled
from smaller subunits
Monomer: a repeating subunit
Polymer: a chain of monomers
4 Biological Macromolecules: Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
26
Biological Macromolecules
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27
Carbohydrates
Sugars and polysaccharides
General formula (CH2O)n
Aldehydes and ketones
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Aldehyde group
O
C1
C2
OH
CH2OH
HO
C3
C4
OH
C5
OH
C6
HO OH
OH
O
C1
H
2
OH
OH
C2
OH
HO
C3
HO
C4
C5
OH
C6
CH2OH
O
5
H
HO
H
4
OH
OH
H OH
OH
Glucose
C1
C2
HO
C3
C4
OH
C5
OH
C6
OH
Ketone group
HOCH2
OH
H
4
OH
HO CH
2OH
1
3
Galactose
Fructose
28
Carbohydrates
Saccharide: simple carbohydrate
Monosaccharide: 3-7 carbons
Disaccharide: two monosaccharides
Polysaccharide: five or more monosaccharides
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
O
Monosaccharide
O
Disaccharide
O
O
CH2
O
O
CH 2
Polysaccharide
29
Carbohydrates
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Subunits linked by
glycosidic bonds
C
C
C
H OH
C 1 C
OH H
C
C
O
C
H2 O
O H
C
C
H C
O
C
C
(a)
6
Dehydration
synthesis: loss of
water in a
polymerization
reaction
H
C4
HO
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
H
H
1C 1 C 4
H
O
OH HO
2
3
C
C
H
OH
Glucose
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
H
1C
OH
H
OH
2
3
C
C
H
OH
CH2OH
C5
O
H
H
H
H
1C
C4
C4
OH
H
O
HO
2
3
C
C
H
OH
Glucose
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
OH
H
2
3
C
C
H
1C
H2 O
H2 O
CH2OH
O
C
5
OH
H
1(b) C 1
OH
H
H
3
2
C
C
H
OH
H2 O
OH
OH
Maltose
(b)
6
CH2OH
C
O
5
H
H
4
C
OH
HO
3
C
H
H
C4
HO
(c)
CH2OH
6
O
C
CH2OH O
5
H
H
1 C 1 C5
H
OH
H
2
3
OH H
4
C
C
C
OH
H
OH
Glucose
HO
C4
H
(d)
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
H
H
1C 1 C4
OH
H
CH HO
3
2
C
C
H
OH
Galactose
OH
C
OH
CH OH
3
C 1 2
H
2
C5
H
H
4
C
OH
H
C
OH O
2C
OH
2OH
C CH
1
H
Sucrose
Glucose
CH2OH O
Fructose
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
H
1C
OH
H
OH
3
2
C
C
H
OH
1C
HO
C4
H
CH2OH
O
C
5
H
H
1(b) C O C 4
OH
H
H
3
2
C
C
H
OH
Lactose
30
Carbohydrates
Functions cell structure, adhesion, and
metabolism
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CH2OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
O
O
H
H
H H
H1
H 1H
4
1 O 4 OH
4H
1 O 4 OH
OH
H
H
OH
H
H
O
O
O
H H
H H
O
O
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
5
5
5
O
O
O
H H H
H H H
H
H H
4
1
4
1
4
1
O
O
O
O
OH H
OH H
OH H
3
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
5
O
H
H H
4
1
OH H
Branch O
Branch
2
3
point
H O O
H 6 C OH
5
O
H
H H
4
1
O
OH H
H
bonds
(a) Cellulose
(b) Starch
OH
31
Lipids
Long or complex, hydrophobic, C - H chains
Triglycerides, phospholipids in membranes,
steroids like cholesterol
Functions
Triglycerides energy storage
Phospholipid major cell membrane component
Steroids cell membrane component
32
Fatty acids
1
O
C
HO
Triglycerides
33
Phosphate
HC
O
O C
CH
Charged
head
Glycerol
Polar head
Nonpolar
tails
O
O C
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
Tail
Double
bond
Creates
a kink.
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
HCH
HC
HC
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
H
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
HCH
Fatty acids
(a)
Water
Water
Water
2 Phospholipid bilayer
(b)
34
Membrane Lipids
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Glycolipid
Phospholipids
Cholesterol is
inserted into the
phospholipid bilayer
Cell
membrane
Protein
Site for
ester bond
with a fatty
acid
Cholesterol
Cholesterol
HO
H C
Globular protein
CH2
CH2 H2C
C
CH3
H2
HC
C
CH2CH H2C
CH
CH
CH3
C
HC
CH2C
H2
CHCH3
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH3 CH3
35
Concept Check:
Triglycerides that have double bonds in their fatty acids are
best described as
A. Saturated
B. Unsaturated
C. Phospholipids
D. Cholesterol
36
Proteins
37
Amino Acids
Amino acids are
the monomers that
make up a protein
polymer
38
Bond forming
H
H
N
H
C
C
R1
C
R1
R2
H
N
OH
H
H
N
H
C
H
N
O
R2
OH
N
O
C
R3
N
H
N
OH
R4
R4
R3
C
H
C
H
OH
C
O
H
+ 3H2O
C
O
39
Protein Structure
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Primary
Structure
Secondary
Structure
Tertiary
Structure
Amino acids
Primary structure
helix
-pleated sheet
Secondary structure
N H
O C
C O
H N
N
C
C O
Disulfide bond
S S
Tertiary structure
Quaternary
Structure
O C
Projected 3-dimensional
shape (note grooves and
projections)
Quaternary structure
40
Nucleic Acids
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
N base
Pentose sugar
Phosphate
(a) A nucleotide, composed of a phosphate, a pentose
sugar, and a nitrogen base (either A,T,C,G, or U) is
the monomer of both DNA and RNA.
Backbone
Backbone
P
DNA
D
P
D
P
A
P
D
P
C
P
D
P
G
P
D
P
C
P
D
RNA
H bonds
P
A
R
P
Nucleotide Components
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
HOCH2 O
DNA Nucleotides:
Deoxyribose
C, G, A or T
HOCH2 O
OH
H
OH OH
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Ribose
C, G, A or U
OH H
RNA Nucleotides:
OH
O
N
H
N
H
N
H
N
N
H
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
H3C
H
N
O
H
N
N
H
N
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Uracil (U)
42
DNA is formed by
two very long
polynucleotide
strands linked along
their length by
hydrogen bonds
Backbone
strands
Base pairs
D
Hydrogen
O bonds
P
O
O
P
D
G
O
43
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cells
Events in Cell Division
H-bonding severed
G
New
bases
44
NH2
O
O
P
O
O
O
P
O
O
O
N
7
9
N
4 3
N
CH2 O
1
2
O
OH
OH
Adenosine
45
Concept Check:
Which of the following is TRUE about RNA?