Fluid Pressure

Fluid pressureis the increase in

pressure at increasing depths in a liquid.
This pressure increases because the liquid
at lower depths has to support all of the
water above it.

Properties of Pressure in
Fluids at Rest
1. Force of a fluid at rest on the walls

of its container is always

perpendicular (normal) to the wall
and vice versa.
2. An external pressure extended on a
fluid is transmitted throughout the
volume of the fluid.
3. The pressure on a small surface in a
liquid is the same regardless of the
orientation of the surface.

Static Fluid Pressure

Thepressurein a static fluid arises
from theweightof the fluid and is given
by the expression

Pstatic fluid = gh
Where: = m/V = fluid density
g = acceleration of gravity
h = depth of fluid

Pascals Principle
Pressure is transmitted undiminished
in an enclosed static fluid.

Any externally applied pressure is

transmitted to all parts of the enclosed
fluid,
making
possible
a
large
multiplication
of
force
(
hydraulic press principle).
The
pressure at the bottom of the jug is
equal to the externally applied
pressure on the top of the fluid plus
thestatic fluid pressurefrom
the
weight of the liquid.

Hydraulic Press
A multiplication offorce can be achieved by
the application of fluidpressure according to
Pascal's principle, which for the two pistons
implies
P1= P2
This allows the lifting of a heavy load with a
small force, as in anauto hydraulic lift, but of
course there can be no multiplication ofwork,
so in an ideal case with no frictional loss:
Winput= Woutput

Poiseuille's Law
In the case of smooth flow (laminar flow),
the volume flowrate is given by the pressure
difference divided by theviscous resistance.
This resistance depends linearly upon the
viscosityand the length, but the fourth
power dependence upon the radius is
dramatically different. Poiseuille's law is
found to be in reasonable agreement with
experiment for uniform liquids (called
Newtonian fluids) in cases where there is no
appreciable turbulence.

Scales of
Temperature

Celsius
FROM
CELSIUS TO

FORMULA

Fahrenheit

F = C 1.8 + 32

kelvin

K = C + 273.15

Rankine

Ra = C 1.8 + 32
+ 459.67

Raumur

Re = C 0.8

Ander Celsius

Fahrenheit

Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit

FROM
FAHRENHE
IT TO

FORMULA

Celsius

C = (F - 32) / 1.8

kelvin

K = (F + 459.67) /
1.8

Rankine

Ra = F + 459.67

Raumur Re = (F - 32) / 2.25

Kelvin

William
Thomson, 1st
Baron Kelvin

FROM
KELVIN
FORMULA
TO
Celsius
C = K - 273.15
Fahrenhei
F = K 1.8 - 459.67
t
Rankine
Ra = K 1.8
R = (K - 273.15)
Raumur
0.8

Rankine

William John
Macquorn
Rankine

FROM
RANKINE
TO

FORMULA

Celsius

C = (Ra - 32 459.67) / 1.8

Fahrenhei
t

F = Ra - 459.67

kelvin

K = Ra / 1.8

Raumur

Re = (Ra - 32 459.67) / 2.25

Reamur
FROM
REAMUR
TO

FORMULA

Celsius

C = Re 1.25

Fahrenhei F = Re 2.25 +
t
32
Ren Antoine
Ferchault de
Raumur

kelvin

K = Re 1.25 +
273.15

Rankine

Ra = Re 2.25 +
32 + 459.67

Temperature Scale Ranges

Scale Factor

Raumu
r

Rankin
e

Boiling point of
water
at 1
atmosphere

100

80

212

373.1
5

671.67

Freezing point
of water
at 1
atmosphere

32

273.1
5

491.67

Comparison of the Temperature

Scale
=
=

Measurement of
Temperature

Tools used to measure

Temperature
Liquid Expansion Thermometer

Thermometer
O There are a wide variety of thermometers

available on the market today. Some

highly precise measurements are still
done with glass thermometers.
O Since the properties of fluids, and in
particular, mercury are well known, the
only limitation to accuracy and resolution
come in the form of how well you can
manufacture a glass tube with a precision
bore.

Ranges and Accuracy

O The range of a thermometer and it

reading accuracy is dependent on the

size of the hole, the length of the tube
and the fluid in the thermometer.
Typically the smaller the reading
increment, the less range it will have.
O The rounded corner on the reading side
acts as a magnifying glass, making the
liquid column show up wider, and easier
to read.

O The accuracy of a thermometer is

greatly dependent on the

manufacturing process, but also can
be affected by usage.
O The pressure exerted on the
thermometer bulb can affect the
reading to a certain degree.

How does a Thermometer work?

O Most materials take up more space

and expand as they are heated. They

do this in such an orderly way that
we can use the amount of their
expansion to measure a difference in
temperature.
O A common thermometer uses
mercury in a glass tube. An increase
in temperature makes the mercury
expand and rise in the glass tube.

Thermocouples

Thomas Seebeck and the Thermoelectric Effect

O Suppose you stick an iron bar in a fire. You'll know you

have let go of it quite quickly because heat will be

traveling up the metal from the fire to your fingers. But
did you realize that electricity is traveling up the bar as
well? The first person to properly cotton on to this idea
was German physicistThomas Seebeck(17701831),
who found that if two ends of a metal were at different
temperatures, an electric current would flow through it.
That's one way of stating what's now known as
theSeebeck effector thermoelectric effect. Seebeck
found things got more interesting as he explored further.
If he connected the two ends of the metal together, no
current flowed; similarly, no current flowed if the two
ends of the metal were at the same temperature.

How does a Thermocouple work?

O Simply place one of the metal

junctions in a bath of ice (or

something else of a precisely known
temperature).
O Place the other metal junction on the
object whose temperature you want
to find out.
O Measure the voltage change that
occurs and, using the calibration,
you can precisely calculate the
temperature of your object.

Pyrometer

How does a Pyrometer work?

O You can feel a fire some distance

away because it gives

offheatradiation in all directions. In
theory, if the fire behaves exactly
according to the laws of physics, the
radiation it produces is related to its
temperature in a very predictable
way.
O So if you can measure the radiation,
you can precisely measure the
temperature even if you're standing
some way off.

O The theory behind a pyrometer: a

very accurate kind

ofthermometerthat measures
something's temperature from the
heat radiation it gives out.

Infrared Sensor

How does an Infrared Sensor work?

O IR (infrared) sensors detect infrared

light. The IR light is transformed into an

electric current, and this is detected by
a voltage or amperage detector.
O A property of light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) is that they produce a certain
wavelength of light when an electric
current is applied - but they also
produce a current when they are
subjected to the same wavelength light.