AC Circuits

2007

Alternating Currents
An
An alternating
alternating current
current such
such as
as that
that
produced
produced by
by aa generator
generator has
has no
no
direction
direction in
in the
the sense
sense that
that direct
direct current
current
has.
has. The
The magnitudes
magnitudes vary
vary sinusoidally
sinusoidally
with
with time
time as
as given
given by:
by:
AC-voltage
Emax
and current
imax
E = Emax sin
time,
t
i = imax sin

Rotating Vector
Description
The
The coordinate
coordinate of
of the
the emf
emf at
at any
any instant
instant
is
sin
Observe
for
is the
the value
value of
of EEmax
sin
Observe
for
max
0
incremental
incremental angles
angles in
in steps
steps of
of 45
450.. Same
Same
is
is true
true for
for i.i.
E
E = Emax sin

1800
450 900 1350

Radius
R = Emax
=
Emax

2700

3600

Effective AC Current
The average
imax
I = imax
current in a cycle is
zerohalf + and
half -.
But energy is
expended, regardless
22
I
II
I
of direction. So the
IIrms

rms
22 0.707
0.707
root-mean-square
value is useful.
The rms value Irms is
The effective ac
sometimes called
ief current:
= 0.707 imax
the effective
current I :

AC Definitions
One effective ampere is that ac
current for which the power is the
same as for one ampere of dc current.
Effective
=
0.707
Effective current:
current: iief
=
0.707
ef
iimax
One effective voltmax
is that ac voltage

that gives an effective ampere through

a resistance of one ohm.
Effective
= 0.707
Effective voltage:
voltage: VVef
ef = 0.707
VVmax
max

Example 1: For a particular device, the

house ac voltage is 120-V and the ac
current is 10 A. What are their maximum
values?
= 0.707
0.707
= 0.707
0.707
iief
VVef
ef =
ef =
iimax
VVmax
max
max
ieff
Veff
10 A
120V
imax

Vmax

0.707 0.707
0.707 0.707
= 14.14
14.14 AA
iimax
max=

= 170
170
VVmax
max=
VV
The ac
ac voltage
voltage actually
actually varies
varies from
from +170
+170
The
to -170
-170 VV and
and the
the current
current from
from 14.1
14.1
VV to
to 14.1
14.1 AA..
AA to

Pure Resistance in AC
Circuits
R

Vmax
imax

Voltage
Current

a.c.
Source
Voltage
Voltage and
and current
current are
are in
in phase,
phase, and
and
Ohms
Ohms law
law applies
applies for
for effective
effective currents
currents
and
and voltages.
voltages.
Ohms law: Vef = iefR

AC and Inductors
I

Inductor
Current
Rise

0.63I

Time, t

I i

Inductor
Current
Decay

0.37I

Time, t

The voltage V peaks first, causing rapid rise

in i current which then peaks as the emf
goes to zero. Voltage leads (peaks before)
the current by 900. Voltage and current are
out of phase.

A Pure Inductor in AC
Circuit
L

Vmax
imax

Voltage
Current

a.c
.
0
The
The voltage
voltage peaks
peaks 90
900before
before the
the current
current
peaks.
peaks. One
One builds
builds as
as the
the other
other falls
falls and
and
vice
vice versa.
versa.
The reactance may be defined as the
nonresistive opposition to the flow of ac
current.

Inductive Reactance
The back emf
L
induced by a
A
V
changing current
provides opposition
to current, called
a.c
inductive reactance
.
Such
XL. losses are temporary, however, since
the current changes direction, periodically resupplying energy so that no net power is lost
in one cycle.
Inductive reactance XL is a function of
both the inductance and the frequency of
the ac current.

Calculating Inductive
Reactance
L

Inductive
Reactance:

X L 2 fL Unit is the

Ohm's law: VL iX L

a.c
.
The voltage reading V in the above circuit
at the instant the ac current is i can be
found from the inductance in H and the
frequency in Hz.
VVL ii(2
(2 fL
fL)) Ohms law: VL = iefXL
L

Example 2: A coil having an

inductance of 0.6 H is connected to a
120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Neglecting
resistance, what is the effective current
Reactance:
XL =
L = 0.6 H
through
the coil?
2fL
A
XL = 2(60 Hz)(0.6
V
H)
XL = 226
120 V, 60 Hz

ieff

Veff

120V

X L 226

iief
= 0.531 A
ef = 0.531 A

Show that the peak current is Imax =

0.750 A

AC and
Capacitance

Qmax q
0.63 I

Capacito
r
Rise in
Charge

Time, t

Capacitor
Current
Decay

0.37 I

Time, t

The voltage V peaks of a cycle after the

current i reaches its maximum. The voltage
lags the current. Current i and V out of
phase.

A Pure Capacitor in AC
Circuit
C
A

Vmax
imax

Voltage

Current

a.c
.
0
The
The voltage
voltage peaks
peaks 90
900after
after the
the current
current
peaks.
peaks. One
One builds
builds as
as the
the other
other falls
falls and
and
vice
vice versa.
versa.
The
The diminishing
diminishing current
current ii builds
builds charge
charge on
on
CC which
which increases
increases the
the back
back emf
emf of
of VVCC. .

Capacitive Reactance
C
Energy gains and
losses are also
A
V
temporary for
capacitors due to the
constantly changing
a.c
ac current.
.
No net power is lost in a complete cycle,
even though the capacitor does provide
nonresistive opposition (reactance) to the
flow of ac current.
Capacitive reactance XC is affected by both
the capacitance and the frequency of the
ac current.

Calculating Inductive
Reactance
C
A

XC

Capacitive
1
Reactance:

Unit is the

2 fC
Ohm's law: VC iX C

a.c
.
The voltage reading V in the above circuit
at the instant the ac current is i can be
found from the inductance in F and the
frequency in Hz.

ii
VVLL
22 fL
fL

Ohms law: VC = iefXC

Example 3: A 2-F capacitor is

connected to a 120-V, 60 Hz ac source.
Neglecting resistance, what is the
C=2
effective current through
the coil?
1
Reactance X C
F
2 fC
A
:
V
1

XC

2 (60 Hz)(2 x 10 F)
-6

XC = 1330

ieff

Veff

120V

X C 1330

120 V, 60 Hz

iief
= 90.5 mA
ef = 90.5 mA

Show that the peak current is imax = 128

mA

Memory Aid for AC

Elements
An old, but very
E L i
effective, way to
the
remember the phase
I C E
differences for
man
inductors and
capacitors is :
E L I the i C E
Man
Emf
Emf EE is
is before
before current
current ii in
in
inductors
inductors LL;; Emf
Emf EE is
is after
after current
current ii
in
in capacitors
capacitors C.
C.

Frequency and AC Circuits

Resistance R is constant and not affected
by f.
1
1
Inductive reactance XL X 2 fL
X

XCC
L
22 fC
fC
varies directly with
frequency as expected
R, X
since E i/t.
XC XL
Capacitive reactance XC
R
varies inversely with f
since rapid ac allows little
f
time for charge to build up
on capacitors.

Series LRC Circuits

VT

a.c.
L
VL

Series ac circuit
A

VR

VC

Consider
Consider an
an inductor
inductor LL,, aa capacitor
capacitor CC,,
and
and aa resistor
resistor RR all
all connected
connected in
in
series
series with
with an
an ac
ac source
source.. The
The
instantaneous
instantaneous current
current and
and voltages
voltages
can
can be
be measured
measured with
with meters.
meters.

Phase in a Series AC
Circuit
The voltage leads current in an inductor

and lags current in a capacitor. In phase for

resistance R.
V
V = Vmax sin

VL
0
0
0
180
270
360

0
0
0
45
90
135
VR
VC
Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage
waves for each element R, L, and C showing
phase relations. Current i is always in
phase with VR.

Phasors and Voltage

At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC
for an ac series circuit. What is the source
voltage VT?
VL
VC

Phasor
Diagra
m

VR

Source voltage

VL - VC

VT

VR

We handle phase differences by finding

the vector sum of these readings. VT =
Vi. The angle is the phase angle for
the ac circuit.

Calculating Total Source

Voltage
Source voltage

VL - VC

VT

VR

Treating as vectors, we
find:
VVTT VVR2R2 ((VVLL VVCC))22
VVLL VVCC
tan
tan
VVRR

Now recall that: VR = iR; VL = iXL; and VC = iVC

Substitution into the above voltage equation
gives:
VVTT ii RR22 ((XXLL XXCC))22

Impedance in an AC
Circuit
Impedance
XL - XC

VVTT ii RR22 ((XXLL XXCC))22

Impedance Z is
defined:
ZZ RR22 ((XXLL XXCC))22

VVTT
Ohms law for ac
VVTT iZ
iZ or
or ii
current and
ZZ
impedance:
The
The impedance
impedance is
is the
the combined
combined opposition
opposition to
to
ac
ac current
current consisting
consisting of
of both
both resistance
resistance and
and
reactance.
reactance.

Example 3: A 60- resistor, a 0.5 H

inductor, and an 8-F capacitor are
connected in series with a 120-V, 60 Hz ac
source. Calculate the impedance for this
1
circuit.
0.5 H
X 2 fL and X
L

2 fC

X L 2 (60Hz)(0.6 H) = 226
1
XC
332
-6
2 (60Hz)(8 x 10 F)

A
120 V
60 Hz

8 F
60

Z R 2 ( X L X C ) 2 (60 ) 2 (226 332 ) 2

Thus, the impedance
is:

Z = 122

Example 4: Find the effective current and

the phase angle for the previous example.
XL = 226 XC = 332
R = 60 Z = 122

VT 120 V

0.5 H
ieff

Z 122
iief
= 0.985 A
ef = 0.985 A

120 V

8 F

Next we find the phase

60 Hz 60
angle:
Impedance
XL XC = 226 332 = -106
XL - XC Z
X X
XLL XCC

R = 60 tan
tan
RR
R
Continued . . .

Example 4 (Cont.): Find the phase angle

for the previous example.
60

-106

106
tan
60

XL XC = 226 332 = -106

X X
XLL XCC

R = 60 tan
tan
RR

00
=
-60.5
= -60.5

The
The negative
negative phase
phase angle
angle means
means that
that
00
the
ac
voltage
lags
the
current
by
60.5
the ac voltage lags the current by 60.5 ..
This
This is
is known
known as
as aa capacitive
capacitive circuit.
circuit.

Resonant Frequency
Because
Because inductance
inductance causes
causes the
the voltage
voltage to
to
lead
lead the
the current
current and
and capacitance
capacitance causes
causes itit
to
to lag
lag the
the current,
current, they
they tend
tend to
to cancel
cancel each
each
other
other out.
out.
Resonance (Maximum
XL
XL =
Power) occurs when XL =
XC
XC
R
22
22
Z

(
X

X
)
Z R ( XLL XCC ) RR
XC
Resonant
fr XL = XC

1
2 fL
2 fC

11
ffrr
22 LC
LC

Example 5: Find the resonant frequency

for the previous circuit example: L = .5 H,
C = 8 F
11
Resonance XL =
ffrr
22 LC
0.5
LC
XC H
1
A
f
8 F
-6
2 (0.5H)(8 x 10 F
120 V
Resonant
Resonant ffrr =
= 79.6
79.6
Hz
Hz

? Hz

60

At
At resonant
resonant frequency,
frequency, there
there is
is zero
zero reactance
reactance
((only
only resistance
resistance)) and
and the
the circuit
circuit has
has aa phase
phase
angle
angle of
of zero.
zero.

Power in an AC Circuit
No
No power
power is
is consumed
consumed by
by inductance
inductance or
or
capacitance.
capacitance. Thus
Thus power
power is
is aa function
function of
of
the
the component
component of
of the
the impedance
impedance along
along
resistance:
resistance:
Impedance
In terms of ac voltage:
XL - XC Z
PP =
= iV
iV cos
cos

In terms of the resistance

R
R:2
P lost in R only
PP =
= ii2RR
The fraction Cos is known as the power
factor.

Example 6: What is the average power

loss for the previous example: V = 120 V,
= -60.50, i = 90.5 A, and R = 60 .
P = i2R = (0.0905 A)2(60 Resonance XL =
0.5
XC H

Average
Average PP =
= 0.491
0.491
A
W
8 F
W
120 V
The power factor is: Cos
60.50
Cos
? Hz
60
Cos =
= 0.492
0.492 or
or 49.2%
49.2%
The
The higher
higher the
the power
power factor,
factor, the
the more
more
efficient
efficient is
is the
the circuit
circuit in
in its
its use
use of
of ac
ac
power.
power.

The Transformer
A transformer is a device that uses
induction and ac current to step voltages
up or down.
An
An ac
ac source
source of
of emf
emf
Transformer
EEpp is
is connected
connected to
to
a.c
primary
primary coil
coil with
with N
Npp
.
R
turns.
turns. Secondary
Secondary
has
has N
Nssturns
turns and
and
Np Ns
emf
emf of
of EEss..
Induced
Induced
emfs
emfs are:
are:

EEPP NNPP
tt

EESS NNSS
tt

Transformers (Continued):

EEPP NNPP
tt

Transformer
a.c
.
Np Ns
R

EESS NNSS
tt

Recognizing that /t is the same in each

coil, we divide first relation by second and
obtain:
E
N
E
P
The
P NPP
The

transformer
E
transformer
ESS N
NSS
equation:
equation:

Example 7: A generator produces 10 A

at 600 V. The primary coil in a
transformer has 20 turns. How many
secondary turns are needed to step up
the Applying
voltage to
the
2400 IV?
= 10 A; Vp = 600 V
transformer
a.c
equation:
.
VVPP N
N
N
NPP
p
s
20

VVSS

N
NSS

N PVS (20)(2400 V)
NS

VP
600 V

turns

N
NSS =
= 80
80 turns
turns

This
This is
is aa step-up
step-up transformer
transformer;; reversing
reversing
coils
coils will
will make
make itit aa step-down
step-down

Transformer Efficiency

There is no power gain in stepping up the

voltage since voltage is increased by
reducing current. In an ideal transformer with
no internal losses:
Ideal
An ideal
transformer:
a.cTransformer
.
Np Ns
iP ES
EP iP ES iS or

is EP
R
The
The above
above equation
equation assumes
assumes no
no internal
internal
energy
energy losses
losses due
due to
to heat
heat or
or flux
flux changes.
changes.
Actual
Actual efficiencies
efficiencies are
are usually
usually between
between 90
90
and 100%.

Example 7: The transformer in Ex. 6 is

connected to a power line whose
resistance is 12 . How much of the
power is lost in the transmission
line?
I
=
10
A;
V
p = 600 V
V = 2400 V
S

EP iP ES iS

EP iP
iS
ES

(600V)(10 A)
iS
2.50 A
2400 V

a.c
.

20
turns

12

Np

Ns
R

Plost = i2R = (2.50 A)2(12

Plost = 75.0
)
W
Pin = (600 V)(10 A) = 6000
W
%Power
Lost
=
(75
W/6000
%Power Lost = (75 W/6000 W)(100%)
W)(100%) =
=
1.25%
1.25%

Summary
Effective
=
0.707
Effective current:
current: iief
=
0.707
ef
iimax
max
Effective
= 0.707
Effective voltage:
voltage: VVef
ef = 0.707
VVmax
max
Inductive
Reactance:

X L 2 fL Unit is the

Ohm's law: VL iX L

XC

Capacitive
1
Reactance:

Unit is the

2 fC
Ohm's law: VC iX C

Summary (Cont.)
VVTT VV ((VVLL VVCC))
22
RR

22

VVLL VVCC
tan
tan
VVRR

ZZ RR ((XXLL XXCC))

XXLL XXCC
tan
tan
RR

VVTT
VVTT iZ
iZ or
or ii
ZZ

11
ffrr
22 LC
LC

22

22

Summary (Cont.)
Power in AC Circuits:
In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance
R:2
PP =
PP =
= iV
iV cos
cos
= ii2RR
Transformers:

EP N P

ES
NS

EP iP ES iS