SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Dr. Nalin De Silva

Strength of different
materials
Steel

Tensile
strength

Concrete

Compressive
strength

Complex
behavior

Soil

Shear
strength

Presence of pore water

What is shear strength ????

Is the external resistance per unit area that the

soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding
along any plane inside it
Parameter of soil shear strength
c = cohesion
= friction angle

USE OF SHEAR STRENGTH

One must understand the nature of shear resistance

in order to analyze soil stability problem such as :
a. Bearing capacity
b. Slope stability
c. Lateral earth pressure on earth-retaining
structure

Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment
Strip footing

Failure surface
Mobilized shear
resistance
Bearing capacity

Slope stability

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear
strength.

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

Mobilized shear
resistance
Failure
surface

Earth retaining structure

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear
strength.

COULOMB METHOD
The fundamental shear strength equation proposed by
the French engineer Coulomb (1776) is:
s = c + tan

The relationship between the various parameters of

Coulomb's equation is shown in figure below

In Coulomb's equation c and are empirical

parameters, the values of which for any soil
depend upon several factors:
i.
The past history of the soil.
ii. The initial state of the soil, i.e., whether
itis saturated or unsaturated.
iii. The permeability characteristics of the
soil.
iv. The conditions of drainage allowed to
take place during the test.

MOHR METHOD
Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in
materials that contended that a material fails
because of a critical combination of normal stress
and shearing stress and not from either maximm
normal or shear stress alone.
to the friction between them. The fundamental
shear strength equation proposed by the
Frenchengineer Coulomb (1776) is
s=c+
This equation expresses the assumption that the
cohesion c is independent of the normal

MOHR-COULOMB
CRITERION
(IN TERMS OF TOTAL STRESSES)

FAILURE

f c tan
re
u
l
i
a
f

Cohesio
n

lop
e
v
en

Friction
angle

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .

MOHR-COULOMB
FAILURE
CRITERION
(IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVE STRESSES)

f c' ' tan '

Effectiv
e
cohesio
n

re
failu

p
o
l
e
env

' u

u = pore water
pressure

Effective
friction
angle

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of .

MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE
CRITERION
Shear strength consists of two
components: cohesive and frictional.

f c' ' f tan '

f tan
c
f

i ve t
s
e
coh ponen
com

'

frictional
compone
nt

c and are measures of shear

strength.
Higher the values, higher the shear
strength.

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

1
Resolving forces in and directions,

1' 3'

Sin 2
2
'
'
'
'

' 1 3 1 3 Cos2
2
2

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

1' 3'
2

3'

1' 3'
2

1'

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

3'

1' 3'
2

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

1'

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

Failure surface

f c' ' tan '

Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope
GL

c
Y

c
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

c+

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger

GL

c
Y

c
c
.. and finally failure occurs
when Mohr circle touches the
envelope

Orientation of Failure Plane

1

Failure envelope

, f

3'

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
=

45 + /2

1'

Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v
X

v
h

u
h

effective stresses

v h

total stresses

or

Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective

stresses
v
X

If X is on
failure

v
h

u
h

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

effective stresses

c c

v h

Failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

total stresses

or

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress

v = 1
X

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

h = 3
effective stresses

X is on failure

c Cot

Therefore,

1' 3'

c' Cot '

2

1' 3'

Sin '
2

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress

1' 3'

c' Cot '

2

'
1

1' 3'

Sin '
2

3' 1' 3' Sin '2c' Cos '

1' 1 Sin ' 3' 1 Sin ' 2c' Cos '

'
1

'
3

1 Sin ' 2c' Cos '

1 Sin '
1 Sin '

'
'

Tan 45 2c' Tan 45

2
2

'
1

'
3

Mohr Coulomb failure

CRITERIA FAILURE OF GANULAR SOIL,

COHESION SOIL AND GRANULAR-COHESION SOIL

Determination of shear strength parameters of

soils (c, orc
Laboratory
tests
on
specimens
taken
from
representative
undisturbed
samples
Most common laboratory
determine
the
shear
parameters are,

tests to
strength

1. Direct shear test

2. Triaxial shear test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional ring
shear test, plane strain triaxial test,
laboratory vane shear test, laboratory
fall cone test

Field tests

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Vane shear test

Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Fall cone
Pressuremeter
Static cone penetrometer
Standard penetration test

Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample

vc
hc

hc
vc

Before construction

vc +
hc

hc
vc +

After and during

construction

vc +

Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions in
the laboratory
0

vc
0

l
a
i
ax
r
T

0
Representative
soil
sample
taken from the
site

Di
re
ct

hc

hc

t
s
te

hc

hc
vc +

vc
sh

ea
r

vc
Step 1
Set the specimen in
the apparatus and
apply the initial
stress condition

te
st

vc
Step 2
Apply
the
corresponding field
stress conditions

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays
Preparation of a sand specimen
Porous
plates

Components of the shear box

Preparation of a sand specimen

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Preparation of a sand specimen

Leveling the top surface of

specimen

Pressure plate

Specimen preparation
completed

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Test procedure

Steel ball
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring to
measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Test procedure

Steel ball
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring to
measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST
Shear box

Dial
gauge
to
measure
vertical
displacement

Proving ring to
measure
shear force

Loading frame to
apply vertical load

Dial gauge to measure

horizontal
displacement

Direct shear test

Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

Normal stress
Area of cross section of the sample
Shear stress

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal displacement

Direct shear tests on sands

Shear stress,

Stress-strain relationship
Dense sand/
OC clay

f
f

Loose sand/
NC clay

Expansion
Compression

Change in height
of the sample

Shear displacement

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on sands

Shear stress,

How to determine strength parameters c and

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2

f3

f2

f1

Normal stress = 1

Shear stress at failure,f

Shear displacement

Mohr Coulomb failure envelope

Normal stress,

Direct shear tests on sands

Some important facts on strength parameters c and of sand

Sand
is
hence c = 0

cohesionless

Direct shear tests are

drained and pore water
pressures are dissipated,
hence u = 0
Therefore,
= and c = c = 0

Direct shear tests on clays

In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very slow rate to
allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one test would take several
days to finish)

Shear stress at failure,f

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Overconsolidated clay (c 0)
Normally consolidated clay (c = 0)

Normal force,

Interface tests on direct shear apparatus

In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it is required to
determine the angle of internal friction between soil and the structural material
(concrete, steel or wood)

Soil

Foundation material

f ca ' tan

Where,
ca = adhesion,
= angle of internal friction

Advantages of direct shear apparatus

Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can be achieved
Can be used to determine interface strength parameters
Clay samples can be oriented along the plane of weakness or an identified
failure plane

Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus

Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane
Area of the sliding surface changes as the test progresses
Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

Lets do some examples

TRIAXIAL
TEST

SHEAR
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane

O-ring
impervious
membrane

Soil
sample

Soil sample at
failure
Perspex
cell

Porous
stone
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure
pedestal

Pore pressure or
volume change

TRIAXIAL
TEST

SHEAR

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder

TRIAXIAL
TEST

SHEAR

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample are

carefully trimmed

Setting up the sample in

the triaxial cell

TRIAXIAL
TEST

SHEAR

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered with a

rubber membrane and
sealed

Cell is completely
filled with water

TRIAXIAL
TEST

SHEAR

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure
the
deviator load

Dial
gauge
to
measure
vertical
displacement

In some tests

TYPES
TESTS

OF

TRIAXIAL
deviatoric stress
( = q)

Step 1

Step 2

c + q

c
Under all-around cell pressure c
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

Consolidated
sample

Shearing (loading)
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

no

no

Unconsolidated

Drained

Undrained

sample

loading

loading

TYPES
TESTS

OF

TRIAXIAL
Step 2

Step 1
Under all-around cell pressure c

Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open?

yes

Consolidated
sample

Is the drainage valve open?

no

yes

Unconsolidated
sample

CD test

Drained

Undrained

loading

loading

UU test
CU test

no

CONSOLIDATED- DRAINED TEST (CD TEST)

Total,

Neutral, u

Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

VC = VC

hC

Drainage

hC = hC

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +
hC

Drainage

V = VC + =1

h = hC =3

Step 3: At failure

VC + f
Drainage

hC

Vf = VC + f=1f

hf = hC =3f

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC +

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Expansion

Time
Compression

Volume change of the

sample

Volume change of sample during consolidation

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Deviator stress,d

Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand or
OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand or
NC Clay

Expansion
Compression

Volume change of
the sample

Axial strain

Dense sand or
OC clay
Axial strain
Loose sand or
NC clay

Deviator stress,d

CD tests

How to determine strength parameters c and

d)fc

1 = 3 + (d)f
Confining stress = 3c
Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a

d)fb

d)fa

Shear stress,

Axial strain

Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

3a

3b 3c 1a
(d)fa
(d)fb

1b

1c

or

CD tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD
tests, =

Therefore, c = c
and =
cd and d are used to
denote them

CD tests Failure envelopes

Shear stress,

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

3a

1a

or

(d)fa
Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d of
sand or NC clay

CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd 0

NC

OC

(d)f

or

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ
drained
shear
strength

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

Core

= drained shear
strength of clay
core

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

= In situ drained shear

strength
Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.
Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils

CONSOLIDATED- UNDRAINED TEST (CU TEST)

Total,

Neutral, u

Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

VC = VC

hC

Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

V = VC + u =1

VC +
No
drainage

hC

hC = hC

h = hC u =3

Step 3: At failure
Vf = VC + fuf =1f

VC + f
No
drainage

hC

uf

hf = hC uf =3f

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Expansion

Time
Compression

Volume change of the

sample

Volume change of sample during consolidation

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Deviator stress,d

Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand or
OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand or
NC Clay

Axial strain

Loose sand
/NC Clay

Axial strain
Dense sand or
OC clay

Deviator stress,d

CU tests

How to determine strength parameters c and

d)fb

1 = 3 + (d)f
Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a

3
d)fa
Total stresses at failure

Shear stress,

Axial strain

ccu

cu

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
total stresses

3a

3b

(d)fa

1a

1b

or

CU tests

How to determine strength parameters c and

1 = 3 + (d)f - uf

Shear stress,

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
effective stresses

uf

Effective stresses at failure

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
total stresses

ccu

3a

3b
3a

ufa

3b

=3 - uf

1a
(d)fa

cu

ufb

1b
1a

1b

or

CU tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Shear
strength
parameters in terms of
total stresses are ccu and
cu

Shear
strength
parameters in terms of
effective stresses are c
and

c = cd and = d

CU tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c = 0

Shear stress,

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
total stresses

3a 3a

1a 1a

cu

or

(d)fa
Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine cu
and = d) of sand or NC clay

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ
undrained
shear
strength

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

Core

= Undrained
shear strength
of clay core

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

= In situ undrained shear

strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and cu) can be used for stability
problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with the
existing stress state; Then for some reason additional stresses are
applied quickly with no drainage occurring

Lets do an example

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Data analysis
Initial specimen condition

Specimen condition
during shearing

C = 3
No
drainage

C = 3

No
drainage

3 + d

Initial volume of the sample = A0 H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A H
Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,
A H = A0 H0
A (H0 H) = A0 H0
A (1 H/H0) = A0

A0
A
1 z

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Step 1: Immediately after sampling

0
0
Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure
3 = 3 -uc

C = 3
No
drainage

C = 3

uc

3 = 3 -uc

uc = B 3
Increase of pwp due
increase of cell pressure

to

Increase of cell pressure

Skemptons pore water
pressure parameter, B

Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Step 3: During application of axial load

No
drainage

1 = 3 + d- uc

3 + d
3

3 = 3 - uc

ud
u

uc ud

ud = ABd
Increase of pwp due to increase
of deviator stress

Increase of deviator stress

Skemptons pore water

pressure parameter, A

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3

ud = ABd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud
u = B [3 + Ad]
u = B [3 + A(1 3]

Skemptons
pore
water
pressure
equation

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Derivation of Skemptons pore water pressure equation

Derivation of Skemptons pore water pressure equation

Step 1 :Increment of isotropic stress

1 + 3

1
3
2
No drainage

uc

2 + 3
No drainage

Increase in effective stress in each direction = 3

- uc

3 + 3

Derivation of Skemptons pore water pressure equation

Step 2 :Increment of major principal stress

3
2
No drainage

1 + 1

uc

3 + 0

2 + 0
No drainage

Increase in effective stress in 1 direction = 1

- ud

Increase in effective stress in 2 and 3 directions =

Average Increase in effective stress = (1

- ud

- ud - ud ud)/3

Typical values for parameter B

Typical values for parameter A

1 3
u

1 3

Axial strain
NC Clay (low sensitivity)
(A = 0.5 1.0)

Axial strain
NC Clay (High sensitivity)
(A > 1.0)

Collapse of soil structure may occur in high sensitivity

clays due to very high pore water pressure generation

Typical values for parameter A

1 3

1 3

u
Axial strain
OC Clay (Lightly overconsolidated)
(A = 0.0 0.5)

u
Axial strain
OC Clay (Heavily overconsolidated)
(A = -0.5 - 0.0)

During the increase of major principal stress pore water

pressure can become negative in heavily overconsolidated
clays due to dilation of specimen

Typical values for parameter A

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

Total,

Neutral, u

-ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

No
drainage

C
C

-uruc = -urc
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load

No
drainage

C +
C

-urc u

C + f
C

Effective,

h0 = ur
VC = C +ur - C=ur
h = ur
V = C + + ur - c
h = C + ur - c
Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

(UU

V0 = ur

Step 1: Immediately after sampling

TEST

-urc uf

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
3f

uf =

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

Total,

Neutral, u

C + f
C

(UU

Effective,

Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

TEST

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
3f

-urc uf

uf =

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell pressure.
Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for different
cell pressures

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

Total,

UNDRAINED
Neutral, u

C + f
C

(UU

Effective,

Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

TEST

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
3f

-urc uf

uf =

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0

cu
ub

3a

3b
3

ua

1a
1b
1

or

UNCONSOLIDATEDTEST)

UNDRAINED

TEST

(UU

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

S < 100%

3c 3b

S > 100%

c 3a b

a or

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ
undrained
shear
strength

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with no
change in water content of soft clay

Core

= Undrained
shear strength
of clay core

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

= In situ undrained shear

strength
Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.
Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC +

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

1 = VC + f

Shear stress,

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

3 = 0
qu

Normal stress,

Note: Theoritically qu = cu , However in the actual case qu <

cu due to premature failure of the sample