Electrical Fault

Diagnosis
MEA349A

Basic electrical system

1.The production of electrical energy
2.The transmission of electrical energy
3.The application of electrical energy
4.The control of electrical energy

Transmission System

SOURCE

CONTROL

LOAD

Parts of Electrical System

The source: The function of the source is to provide the energy for the electrical
system. A source may usually be thought of as a battery or a generator.

The Load: The function of the load is to absorb the electrical energy supplied by the
source. Most domestic electrical equipment constitutes loads. Common examples
includes lamps & heaters, all of which accept energy from the system.

The transmission system: This conducts the energy from the source to the load.
Typically the transmission system consist of insulated wire.

The control apparatus: Function is to control; the most simple control is a switch.
Allows flow of energy.

Resistors are devices which make use of poor conductors to limit the flow of
electricity through a circuit. Resistors are generally made of substances which
only partially conduct electricity such as carbon, special alloys and some
metal oxides. A high value of resistance will allow less current to flow than a low
resistance.

Symbol for a Resistor

The unit of resistance is the "ohm" (pronounced "owm" as in show). The symbol
for resistance is the Greek letter omega:
A light globe has a resistance in the order of tens of ohms. Your skin has a
resistance in the order of millions of ohms.

The most common resistor is the Carbon

resistor.
Inside a carbon resistor is a 'ceramic
'core' on which is deposited a spiral
carbon 'track'. The track may have been
machined, or 'burnt' away with a laser
beam.

A carbon resistor with the paint removed

showing the spiral carbon track.

A broken resistor showing the ceramic core.

A 'cut-away' showing the inside of a

Carbon Resistor.
A carbon resistor with and without the outer
paint.

High-power "wire-wound" resistors have

a spiral of high-resistance wire wound
around the ceramic core.

A wire-wound resistor

When current flows through a resistor it heats up due to the voltage

drop across the resistor. The amount of heat a resistor can handle is
indicated by its "power rating" or "wattage". Common carbon
resistors have a power rating of half a watt. Where larger ratings are
required the resistor may be made of a spiral of Nickel-Chromium alloy
which is able to handle much higher currents and much more heat.
These resistors are usually termed: "wire-wound" resistors. They are
physically much larger than Carbon and metal-film resistors.
Resistors are constructed to provide predetermined resistances. Most
common resistors are guaranteed to be within 5% of their marked
value. ('Metal-oxide' resistors with a blue body are guaranteed to meet
their marked value plus, or minus 1%.)
In the early days of electronics, resistors were large enough to have
their resistance printed directly onto the body of the device. Modern
resistors, however are far too small to allow values to be marked and
use a "colour code" consisting of 'bands' painted onto the device. Each
colour and its position represents a specific value.

A typical Carbon
Resistor rated at 5%
Tolerance

The "Tolerance" band

indicates the accuracy of the
resistor.
Silver = +/- 10%
Gold = +/- 5%
(Resistors with a blue body
(metal-oxide types) have a
Tolerance of +/- 1%.)

Resistor Colour Chart

The values represented by each colour
are:

Reading Resistance Values:

On 5% resistors (ie the ones that don't have a blue body) the first two bands
represent the first two digits in the number. The third band represents the
"multiplier" ie the number of zeros to be added after the first two numbers. The
value is in 'ohms'.
The digits are red, red - therefore: 2, 2
The multiplier is orange - therefore: 000
(ie three zeros)
The value is therefore: 2 2 0 0 0 ohms, or
22 thousand ohms, or 22kohms, or 22 k .

eg1

n
eg2

The digits are brown, black - therefore: 1, 0

The multiplier is black - therefore:
Nil (ie no zeros)
The value is therefore: 10 ohms, 10 .
The common mistake as 100 .
The last band says there are ZERO zeros a
f
after the first black. is to interpret this
c
combination

1% Tolerance Resistors
High accuracy resistors are made using a metal-oxide film, rather than Carbon. These
resistors have a blue body and four colour bands instead of three. The same colour
code system applies, but there are three 'digit' bands and one 'multiplier' band.

First digit is red - therefore: 2

Second digit is red - therefore: 2
Third digit is orange - therefore: 3
On metal-oxide resistors the Tolerance bands are:
Brown = +/- 1%, Red = +/- 2%

The multiplier is Brown - therefore: 1 zero

The value is therefore: 2230 ohms, or 2.23k

Standard Resistor Values - :

With 5%Tolerance resistors, there is no point in making values closer than 10% apart. If
a 1000ohm resistor can only be guaranteed to be somewhere within the range 950ohm
to 1050ohm, there is no point trying to market a 980ohm resistor, for example.

CAPACITORS

In its simplest form, a capacitor

consists of an insulator
sandwiched between two
conductors. The insulator is
called a "dielectric" and may
consist of almost any insulating
material ranging from paper,
glass, ceramic, air, oil, plastic
and so on.
Often the 'sandwich' is rolled
into a cylindrical shape to save
space.

Exploded view of a typical

capacitor - An insulator
between two conductors.

When a capacitor (also called a "condenser") is connected into an

electrical circuit and a voltage is applied, electrons flow onto the metal
plates. If the circuit is then disconnected the 'charge' will remain on the
plates. A capacitor therefore acts as a 'storage device' for electricity. The
capacitors used for tuning in radio applications, often have moveable
'plates', but in by far the majority of applications, the positions and sizes of
the plates and dielectric are fixed. (Hence the capacitance remains
constant.)

Symbol for a Capacitor

The unit of capacitance is the Farad. (After Faraday) The symbol is the Greek
letter "mu" or: )

Until very recently, it would be true to say that a 'one-farad' capacitor

would be the size of a dinner plate. The 'farad' is a very large unit. The
majority of capacitors in general use have values in the range of: microfarads, nano-farads, or pico-farads!

(One farad = one million micro-farads = one thousand million nano farads = one
million million pico farads.)

Large capacity capacitors are used in domestic appliances such as

some video recorders as an emergency memory back-up power supply,
rather than using batteries. Typically, these capacitors may have values
of five or six farads at 3 volts. This 'storage' feature of capacitors makes
them useful in AC to DC power supplies where they are used to help
'smooth' the resulting DC output.

The key to understanding the other main use of capacitors in circuits is that they are
basically insulators.
If a battery is connected to a capacitor, electrons will flow from the battery onto one of
the plates and from the other plate into the battery. This flow of current will continue until
the charge on each plate is at its maximum. (As determined by the construction of the
capacitor.)
For the brief time this process is taking place, there appears to be a complete circuit. If a
globe were connected into this circuit, it would glow during the time current was flowing
and charging the plates.

When the switch is closed electrons flow into the

capacitor. While the capacitor is charging the globe will
light up.

If the battery is removed and the switch closed, electrons

flow out of the capacitor. The globe lights up.

Consider then, if alternating current (AC) is applied to the capacitor, the plates will be
continually charging and discharging as current flows into and out of the plates. A globe
connected into the circuit will now remain alight for as long as the varying voltage is
applied.
A capacitor will therefore conduct changing current, but block D.C. (It is important to
appreciate that the voltage need not necessarily alternate from positive to negative to be
'passed'; a changing d.c. current will pass 'through' a capacitor.)

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPACITORS

As outlined previously, one use of capacitors is where the
designer wishes to pass changing voltage ( the 'signal')
while blocking unwanted DC effects. The choice of
capacitor depends upon two factors - the signal voltage
and its frequency. (In some cases, current is also
significant.)
If the applied voltage exceeds the rating of the capacitor,
current may 'punch' through the dielectric from one plate
to the other. Maximum voltage rating is usually marked on
the capacitor in some way.
The size of the plates and the thickness of the dielectric
determines the efficiency with which the capacitor will
pass a particular signal. A small, thin capacitor is more
effective for higher frequency signal than one with large
plates and thick dielectric.
Physical construction and the type of materials used will
also have an effect on the frequency response of
capacitors.
Once the general type of capacitor has been chosen
(refer to the following table), the designer must select the
capacitance needed to 'pass' the specific signal. As a
general guide, if audio signals are involved (several
thousand Hz), typical values would be tens of microfarads, while radio frequency signals would necessitate
the use of pico, or 'nano' value.
In reality, consideration must be given to the effects of
other components, but the general rule applies.
CAPACITORS- TYPICAL ELECTRICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:

Capacitor
type

Max.
voltage

Frequency

ceramic

50 volts
typical

high (radio)

greencap

100 volts
typical

low to
medium

tantalum

up to 50v
typical

low

electrolytic

up to 100v
typical

low

CAPACITOR MARKINGS
The capacitance of capacitors may be marked in one of several ways.

Where there is sufficient room on the body of the device a number and the units
will be printed e.g. 100uF 25 VW, which indicates that this capacitor has a
capacitance of 100 micro-farads and a breakdown voltage of 25 volts.
(approximately)
Smaller capacitors, such as 'greencaps' use a numerical system where the first
place represents the first digit, the second place; the second digit and the third
place is the number of zeros. (the multiplier) The capacitance so indicated is in
picofarads!
104 K = 100,000pF or 0.1uF
Colour codes follow a similar pattern to that used for resistors, but they tend to
become rather confusing at times. A good set of 'data' sheets should be consulted
when decoding is needed.

DIODES
Diodes are the simplest of the solid-state devices. Solid state basically means an
electronic component or device that is composed chiefly or exclusively of solid
materials, usually semi conducting. A solid-state has no moving parts. Diodes consist
of a piece of P-type material fused to a piece of N-type material. The most common
forms of diodes are constructed from Silicon. Germanium is less stable at high
temperatures than Silicon. Its use is generally reserved for those special applications
where a low forward bias is essential. Germanium is less stable at high temperatures
than Silicon.

Symbol for a Diode

A diode will only conduct in one direction, with electrons flowing from the N-type end to
the P-type end.(ie from the "Cathode" to the "Anode")
If a voltage is applied which reverse biases the junction, the depletion layer will widen
until a point is reached where the voltage exceeds the 'breakdown voltage' of the diode
and large currents flow; destroying the device. One type of diode, the 'zener', actually
makes use of breakdown voltage in an interesting way. This will be discussed later
There are many different forms of diodes, from simple 'point-contact' signal diodes to
multi-coloured light emitting diodes. A few of the more common varieties will be
discussed.

Signal Diodes
Signal diodes are physically small devices usually used where small
currents, high voltages and high frequencies are involved. The size of
the junction has an effect on the signal capabilities of the diode. A
small junction offers less resistance to high frequencies than does a
wide thick junction. The name comes from the fact that these diodes
are suitable for use in radio detectors to isolate the radio 'signal'.
Signal diodes are very small and often glass encapsulated, with a red
or black band on one end. (The glass is sometimes painted over to
reduce unwanted photo-voltaic effects.)

Power Diodes
Where larger currents are involved, a larger junction is needed to dissipate the heat
generated. A small junction would be in danger of literally melting with currents in
excess of a few hundred milli-amps.

Since the power diode has a large junction, it is not suited to high frequency applications.
(High frequency, high current diodes are available, but the cost is substantial.)
One advantage of the larger junction is its ability to withstand higher voltages without
sustaining damage. While a signal diode may only be able to take 30 to 50 volts reverse
potential, it is quite common to find power diodes rated up to several thousand volts
maximum reverse bias. (Termed "Peak Inverse Voltage", or PIV.)
Power diodes are able to pass large loads varying from the 1N400X series rated at 1
amp up to industrial diodes capable of carrying 100s of amps!
These diodes come in a variety of encapsulations, the most common being a black
cylinder of plastic about 3mm long with a white band indicating the cathode (negative)
end. Large-current devices are often encased in metal to provide efficient heat transfer.

Light Emitting Diodes

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are among the most widely used of all types of diodes. Colours
available range from red, orange, yellow, green and blue. Sizes are 3mm, or 5mm. It is also
possible to purchase 'rectangular' LEDs and special-purpose LEDs, for example LEDs that
have been moulded to represent a small dot. Most LEDs have a couloured 'lens', but it is
possible to buy "water-clear" LEDs that have no colouring in the plastic lens. LEDs are also
available in different "intensities" ranging up to several "candle-power".
The most common (and cheapest) LED is the 5mm red LED.
LEDs are also available in "packages" arranged to produce letters and numerals. The price
and availability of these packages depends to a large extent upon current industrial
requirements.
Numerals are produced by arranging LEDs in a seven-segment arrangement as indicated
below. Integrated circuits (ICs) are available for 'driving' displays directly. (The 4026 IC for
example, will take pulses, count them and display the count on a seven-segment display, all
for a few dollars!)

A red LED and a "Seven-segment Display".

As with all diodes, orientation of LEDs is critical. If you connect the legs the
wrong way around it will not conduct. The following diagram should provide
a useful guide. This property is very useful when using a diode to provide
protection against voltage 'reversal' - also called: idiot-proofing. If a diode is
built into the power section the rest of the circuit will be protected in the
event of somebody connecting the power supply the wrong way around.

Zener Diodes
If a reverse bias is applied to a diode it will resist conduction until a point is reached
where current is forced to flow. This voltage is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or;
breakdown voltage.
Under normal circumstances, the diode would be destroyed.
It was discovered that precise production techniques could produce a diode with a
predetermined 'breakdown' voltage which was less likely to be damaged by 'reverse'
current flow. The effect is called the "zener" effect after Clarence Melvin Zener. This
type of diode is called a "Zener Diode".
The result is device which maintains a constant voltage across its ends regardless of
the input voltage.
Zeners are available in a variety of ratings, the most economical being a one watt
version.
It must be remembered that Zeners are used in REVERSE mode, i.e. the anode
connects to the negative supply.

NOTE: Zener diodes are used in REVERSE mode.

The anode connects to negative.

Zener Diodes are used in reverse.

Transistors

A transistor may be thought of as

an electronic tap able to
control a large flow of electrons
with only small variations of
the 'handle'.
The 'handle' in the case of a
transistor is called the "base".
The in and out 'pipes' are called
the "emitter" and the
"collector".
Voltage changes at the base of the
transistor result in changes to
the flow of electricity through
the transistor.
A transistor can be thought of
as a 'tap'.

Symbol for a Transistor

When we think of a water tap we know that large amounts of

water can be controlled by very small movements of the spigot
(the tap handle). It is useful to think of electricity flowing around a
circuit in the same way we think of water flowing in pipes. With an
electronic 'tap' the flow of electricity is controlled by varying the
voltage between the emitter and base of the transistor. The main 'flow'
is a path between the emitter and the collector.
Transistors are used in two basic ways;
1. As an electronic 'switch'. ie they are either fully ON, or fully OFF. (eg to
switch
a
relay)
2. To provide amplification of a small changing voltage ( a 'signal') present
at the Base. (eg in an audio amplifier)

Biasing Transistors:
To keep the transistor operating within this useful range, resistors are used to
establish a predetermined potential difference between emitter and base and base and
collector. These resistors are called 'bias' resistors. Sometimes a resistor is also used
in the base circuit to limit the flow of current into the base. There are a variety of
ways to provide the correct 'bias' to a transistor, one of the most common is presented
below:

Resistors R1 and R2 form a 'voltage divider' which

establishes correct bias and ensures a 'linear' response.

A Transistor using the small current available from

a computer Printer Port to control a Relay

General:
Transistors come in all shapes and sizes. Generally they
have three 'legs', but not all three-legged components
are transistors. The size of a transistor is usually
determined by the amount of current they are required
to handle. Large-current transistors are physically large
and often have enhanced cooling features such a metal
case.

Transformers
A transformer is a device for stepping-up, or stepping-down, the voltage of
an alternating electric signal. Without efficient transformers, the transmission
and distribution of ac electric power over long distances would be
impossible.

Three phase transformer for

powering a suburb.

There are two circuits; the primary circuit, and the secondary circuit.
There is no direct electrical connection between the two circuits, but
each circuit contains a coil which links it inductively to the other circuit.
In real transformers, the two coils are wound onto the same iron core.
The purpose of the iron core is to channel the magnetic flux generated
by the current flowing around the primary coil, so that as much of it as
possible also links the secondary coil. The common magnetic flux linking
the two coils is conventionally denoted in circuit diagrams by a number
of parallel straight lines drawn between the coils (see above).
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a typical
transformer.

Whereas an electric field flux between two conductors allows for an accumulation of free
electron charge within those conductors, an electromagnetic field flux allows for a certain
"inertia" to accumulate in the flow of electrons through the conductor producing the field.
Inductors are components designed to take advantage of this phenomenon by shaping the
length of conductive wire in the form of a coil. This shape creates a stronger magnetic
field than what would be produced by a straight wire. Some inductors are formed with
wire wound in a self-supporting coil. Others wrap the wire around a solid core material of
some type. Sometimes the core of an inductor will be straight, and other times it will be
joined in a loop (square, rectangular, or circular) to fully contain the magnetic flux. These
design options all have effect on the performance and characteristics of inductors.
The schematic symbol for an inductor, like the capacitor, is quite simple, being little more
than a coil symbol representing the coiled wire. Although a simple coil shape is the
generic symbol for any inductor, inductors with cores are sometimes distinguished by the
addition of parallel lines to the axis of the coil. A newer version of the inductor symbol
dispenses with the coil shape in favour of several "humps" in a row:

As the electric current produces a concentrated magnetic field around the coil, this field
flux equates to a storage of energy representing the kinetic motion of the electrons
through the coil. The more current in the coil, the stronger the magnetic field will be,
and the more energy the inductor will store.

Because inductors store the kinetic energy of moving electrons in the form of a
magnetic field, they behave quite differently than resistors (which simply dissipate
energy in the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy storage in an inductor is a function of
the amount of current through it. An inductor's ability to store energy as a function of
current results in a tendency to try to maintain current at a constant level. In other
words, inductors tend to resist changes in current. When current through an inductor is
increased or decreased, the inductor "resists" the change by producing a voltage
between its leads in opposing polarity to the change.

Battery construction
The word battery simply means a group of similar components. In military vocabulary, a "battery" refers to a
cluster of guns. In electricity, a "battery" is a set of voltaic cells designed to provide greater voltage and/or
current than is possible with one cell alone.
The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line, parallel to each other, with
connecting wires:

The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacked in series:

Voltage produced by any particular kind of cell is determined strictly by the chemistry of that cell type. The
size of the cell is irrelevant to its voltage. To obtain greater voltage than the output of a single cell, multiple
cells must be connected in series. The total voltage of a battery is the sum of all cell voltages. A typical
automotive lead-acid battery has six cells, for a nominal voltage output of 6 x 2.2 or 13.2 volts:

Solenoid
A long straight coil of wire can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet. Such coils, called solenoids, have an enormous number
of practical applications. The field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an
iron core. Such cores are typical in electromagnets.

Solenoids
Since the magnetic field is created by moving electrons we could argue that the more
electrons are moving, the stronger the magnetic field would be. A given length of wire
contains a certain number of electrons. Twice that length will contain twice as many
electrons. If a solenoid is made with more "turns" or "wraps" of wire, then it must create
a stronger magnetic field.

This solenoid has only

three turns or wraps of
wire around it. Its
magnetic field is not
very strong.

This solenoid has 6 turns of wire around

it. If all else is constant, the magnetic
field should be twice as strong since it
has twice as many turns.

Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using three basic logic gates.
These gates are the AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate. There also exists other
logical gates, like the NAND, and the EOR gates. We will only be looking at the
first three gates. The basic operations are described below.
AND gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its
inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation. Bear in mind that
this dot is usually omitted, as shown at the output above.

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output if one or more of its inputs
are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

OR gate
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input's
logic at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted
output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as
shown at the outputs above.

NOT gate

This is a NOT-AND circuit which is equal to an AND circuit followed by a NOT circuit. The
outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low.

NAND gate
This is a NOT-OR circuit which is equal to an OR circuit followed by a NOT circuit. The
outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.

NOR gate
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both,
of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EOR operation.

EOR / XOR gate

Electric Starter Motor System

System consist of a motor starter, an engaging gear, relay & starter; in some
systems a clutch mechanism is employed in the engaging gear mechanism.
The motors may employ either plain field series type or a compounded with a
strong series bias.

Thick wire for the hi current

Thin wire for small

switching current

Do you have many questions?