Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ENDANG KOMARIAH
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT UNSYIAH
2014
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What is Second
Language Acquisition?
In second language learning, language plays an
institutional and social role in the community. It
functions as a recognized means of communication
among members who speak some other language as their
native tongue.
In foreign language learning, language plays no major
role in the community and is primarily learned in the
classroom.
The distinction between second and foreign language learning
is what is learned and how it is learned.
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INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS
DIFFERENCES
PERSONAL FACTORS
1.GROUP DYNAMICS : COMPETETIVENESS
(SUCCESSFUL IMAGE AND UNSUCCESSFUL
IMAGE)
2.ATTITUDES TO THE TEACHER AND COURSE
MATERIALS
3.INDIVIDUAL LEARNING TECHNIQUES
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INDIVIDUAL LEARNER
DIFFERENCES
GENERAL FACTORS
1.AGE : COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, CRITICAL
PERIOD HYPOTHESIS.
2.INTELLIGENCE AN APTITUDE
3.COGNITIVE STYLE
4.ATTITUDES AND MOTIVATION (INSTRUMENTAL
AND INTEGRATIVE)
5.PERSONALITY: INTROVERT AND EXTROVERT,
SOCIAL SKILLS.
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Transfer
The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as
language transfer.
It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively on
their native language.
According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the distribution of
the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and
culture.
This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language.
This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language and
culture as practiced by native speakers.
Lados work and much of the work of that time (1950s) was based on the need to produce
pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language and the target
language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences in the languages.
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Framework for
Explaining L1 Transfer
Languag
e
Transfer
Theory
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Language
Language Transfer
Transfer
Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through
positive transfer to the native-language pattern.
Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors
occurred resulting from negative transfer.
Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists
claims. This re-evaluation included area such as:
the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior
to the language behavior of humans were pointed out;
2.
the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where
language behavior was concerned;
3.
analogy could not account for the language users ability to generate
totally novel utterances; and
4.
studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely
corrected their childrens linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the
importance of reinforcement in language learning.
All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L 1 in L2 learning.
1.
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Selinkers Interlanguage
Theory
Selinkers Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learners system and gives the system a structurally
intermediate status between the native and target languages.
According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language or
target language system, rather it falls between the two.
Stages of Interlanguage Development include:
1) random errors (presystematic);
2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing;
3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production;
4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors;
5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency;
6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and
7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i.e.
spelling).
Interlanguage Continuum
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Interlanguage Stages
L1
L2
______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______
Basilang
Mesolang
Acrolang
Identification of
Learner Errors
Error
Identification
An error can be defined as a deviation from the norms of the target language although questions are raised
as to which variety of the target language should serve as the norm.
The general practice where classroom learners are concerned is to select the standard written dialect as a
norm.
The distinction between errors and mistakes is a concern in this type of research. Errors take place when the
deviation arises as a result of lack of knowledge. Mistakes occur when learners fail to perform their
competence.
Overt errors are deviations in form i.e. I runned all the way. Covert errors occur in utterances that are
superficially well-formed but which do not mean what the learner intended them to mean i.e. It was
stopped. What does it refer to?
Should the analysis of errors examine only deviations in correctness or also deviations in appropriateness?
Correctness errors involve rules of language use i.e. learner invites a stranger by saying I want you to come
to the cinema with me. The code was used correctly it was not used appropriately.
There are three types of interpretation of errors: 1) normal- can assign a meaning to an utterance based on
the rules of the target language; 2) authoritative-involves asking the learner to say what the utterance means
in order to make an authoritative reconstruction; and 3) plausible-can be obtained by referring to the
context in which the utterance was produced or by translating the sentence literally into the learners L 1.
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Learner Errors
Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning processes.
Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L 2 acquisition was the result of L1 transfer
or creative construction (construction of unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of
acquiring the native language).
The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer (interlingual), while those
errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were indicative of creative construction (intralingual).
The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by transferring L 1 habits, many more
were not.
It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors varied according to their level
of development.
Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what learners could do correctly.
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Error Analysis
Error
Analysis
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Error Analysis
(Continued)
Error
Analysis
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Research in EA was carried out within the context of the classroom. The goal was
pedagogical remediation.
Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis
Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the
ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a
second language learning situation.
Lado detailed that one does a structure-by-structure comparison of the sound system, morphological
system, syntactic system and even the cultural system of two languages for the purpose of
discovering similarities and differences.
The ultimate goal of contrastive analysis is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for
learners.
There are two positions that developed with regard to CA: (1) strong (2) weak.
The strong version (predictive) maintained that one could make predictions about learning and
hence about the success of language teaching materials based on a comparison between two
languages.
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The weak version (explanatory) starts with an analysis of learners recurring errors (error analysis).
It begins with what learners do and then attempts to account for those errors on the basis of native
language-target language differences.
Components of
Communicative Competence
Canale and Swain (1983) identified four components of communicative competence:
1) grammatical competence
2) sociolinguistic competence
3) discourse competence
4) strategic competence
Sociolinguistic competence involves knowing how to produce and understand the language
in different sociolinguistic contexts, taking into consideration such factors as:
1) the status of the participants
2) the purpose of the interaction; and
3) the norms or conventions of the interaction.
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Components of
Communicative Competence
(Continued)
Discourse competence involves the ability to combine and connect
utterances (spoken) and sentences (written) into a meaningful whole.
Discourse ranges from a simple spoken conversation to long written texts.
Strategic competence involves the manipulation of language in order to
meet communicative goals. It involves both verbal and non-verbal behaviors.
Speakers employ this competence for two main reasons:
1) to compensate for breakdowns in communication such as when the
speaker forgets or does not know a term and is forced to paraphrase or
gesture to get the idea across; and
2) to enhance the effectiveness of communication such as when a speaker
raises or lowers the voice for effect.
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Language Learning
Behaviorists views of language learning and of language teaching were pre-dominant
in the two decades following the second world war. These views drew on general
theories of learning propounded by psychologists such as Watson (1924), Thorndike
(1932), and Skinner (1957).
Dakin (1973) identifies three general principles of language learning derived from
these theories.
1.
According to the law of exercise, language learning is promoted when the learner makes
active and repeated responses to stimuli.
2.
The law of effect emphasizes the importance of reinforcing the learners responses and
correcting non-target-like ones.
3.
The principle of shaping claims that learning will proceed most smoothly and rapidly if
complex behaviors are broken down into their component parts and learned bit-by-bit.
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Language Learning
(Continued)
Underlying these principles was the assumption that language learning, like any other kind of learning,
took the form of habit formation, a habit consisting of an automatic response elicited by a given stimulus.
Learning was seen to take place inductively through analogy rather than analysis.
According to behaviorist theories, the main impediment to learning was interference from prior
knowledge.
Proactive inhibition occurred when old habits got in the way of attempts to learn new ones. In such cases,
the old habits had to be unlearned so that they could be replaced by the new ones.
The notion of unlearning made little sense as learners did not need to forget their L1 in order to acquire an
L2.
For this reason, behaviorist theories of L2 learning emphasized the idea of difficulty. This is defined as
the amount of effort required to learn an L 2 pattern.
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The degree of difficulty was believed to depend primarily in the extent to which the target language
pattern was similar to or different from a native language pattern.
L1 + L2 Cognitive Development
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Cognitive Development
The cognitive dimension is a natural subconscious process that occurs
developmentally from birth to the end of schooling and beyond.
An infant initially builds thought processes through interacting with loved
ones in the language of the home.
This is an important stepping-stone to build on as cognitive development
continues.
It is important that cognitive development continue through a childs first
language at least through the elementary years.
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Extensive research has demonstrated that children who reach the threshold
in L1 by around age 11 to 12 enjoy cognitive advantages over monolinguals.
Academic Development
Academic development includes all school work in language arts, math, the
sciences, and social studies for each grade level, K-12.
With each succeeding grade, academic work dramatically expands the
vocabulary, sociolinguistic, and discourse dimensions of language to higher
cognitive levels.
Academic knowledge and conceptual development transfer from first
language to second language.
It is most efficient to develop academic work through the students first
language, while teaching second language during other periods of the school
day through meaningful academic content.
In earlier decades, schools in the United States emphasized teaching second
language as the first step and postponing the teaching of academics.
Research has shown that postponing or interrupting academic development
is likely to promote academic failure.
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Language Development
Linguistic processes consist of the subconscious aspects of language
development, an innate ability all humans possess for acquisition of
oral language, as well as the metalinguistic, conscious, formal teaching
of language in the school and acquisition of the written system of
language.
This includes the acquisition of the oral and written systems of the
students first and second languages across all language domains, such
as phonology, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
and discourse.
To assure cognitive and academic success in a second language, a
students first language system, oral and written, must be developed to
a high cognitive level at least through the elementary school years.
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Sociocultural Processes
At the heart of the figure is the individual student going through the process of
acquiring a second language at school.
Central to that students acquisition of language are all of the surrounding social and
cultural processes occurring through everyday life within the students past, present,
and future, in all contexts-home, school, community, and the broader society.
Sociocultural processes may include individual student variables such as self-esteem,
anxiety, or other affective factors.
At school the instructional environment in a classroom or administrative program
structures may create social and psychological distance between groups.
Community or regional social patterns such as prejudice and discrimination expressed
towards groups or individuals in personal and professional contexts can influence
students achievement in school, as well as societal patterns such as the subordinate
status of a minority group or accuturation vs. assimilation forces.
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These factors can strongly influence the students response to a new language, affecting
the process positively only when the student is in a socioculturally supportive
environment.
Learner Strategies
Learner strategies are defined as deliberate behaviors or
actions that learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Cognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge.
Metacognitive strategies are those which help with organizing a
personal timetable to facilitate an effective study of the L 2.
Social strategies include looking for opportunities to converse
with native speakers.
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Strate
gies
Behaviorist Theory
(Continued)
Theory
When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains.
Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive
responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive responses
provided by the environment.
The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to:
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1.
1.
2.
extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response (positive
reward chains); and
3.
MENTALISTS ACCOUNTS OF
L1
ACQ
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Innatism
Language is not learned like other disciplines, but
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Chomsky and
The LAD Theory
This is part of the nativist perspective,
This theory states that learners have a language
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Theory
develop logical thinking. This school of thought was influenced by Jean Piagets
work where he suggests that logical thinking is the underlying factor for both
linguistic and non-linguistic development.
The process of association has been used to describe the means by which the child
learns to relate what is said to particular objects or events in the environment. The
bridge by which certain associations are made is meaning. The extent and
accuracy of the associations made are said to change in time as the child matures.
Cognitivists say that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions
that are necessary for any kind of learning. The environment provides the material
that the child can work on.
Cognitivists view the role of feedback in the learning process as important for
affective reasons, but non-influential in terms of modifying or altering the
sequence of development.
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Cognitivist Theory
(Continued)
Theory
Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance.
2.
Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present.
Activation is a learned response.
3.
4.
5.
Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have
been used.
6.
Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i.e. knowing the what of the
language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge
i.e. know the how of the language system to employ strategies.
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PRAGMATICS AND
INTERACTIONISTS
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Interactionist
Interactionist approach exists between the nature
Theory
Theory
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THEORIES OF SLA
1. THE ACCULTURATION MODEL: THE PROCESS
The Affective Filter Hypothesis claims that affective variables do not impact
language acquisition directly, but can prevent input from reaching what
Chomsky called the Language Acquisition Device. The LAD is the part of the
brain that is responsible for language acquisition.
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ACQUISITION:
NATURAL,
UNCONSCIOUS,
UNINTENIONALLY,
NATURAL
SETTING/INFORMAL
INSTRUCTION
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LEARNING:
NOT NATURAL,
CONSCIOUS,
INTENTIONALLY,
CLASSROOM/
FORMAL
INSTRUCTION
Language
language distance
knowledge of L2
L1 proficiency
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Learner
motivation for L2
support from home
classroom diversity
Learning Process
style of learning
cultural of learner
interactions
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students.
Design lessons with social interactions in
mind to encourage linguistic interactions.
Keep students motivated
Incorporate the students cultures use
books etc..
Make it important to the students use
real life situations.
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INDIVIDUAL TASKS
OBSERVE YOUR OWN CLASSROOM, FIND OUT
AND DISCUSS :
1.CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS
2.TEACHER TALK
3.LEARNER STRATEGIES
4.COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
5.INPUT AND OUTPUT
AND HOW THEY RELATE TO TEACHING
PROCEDURES USED .
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References
Cummins, J. (1979a). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic
interdependence, the optimal age question and some other matters. Working
Papers in Bilingualism. No. 19 (pp. 197-205). Toronto: Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education.
Ellis, R. (2003). The study of second language acquisition (10th ed.). Oxford:
Gass, S.,& Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Mahwah,
Thomas, W., & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority
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