Motivation

What is Motivation
It is a process which begins with a physiological or
psychological need or deficiency which triggers a
behavior or a desire that is aimed at a goal or an
incentive.

Fred Luthans

needs drives incentives

MOTIVATION:
the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort towards attaining a
goal
 Components of Motivation:
• Direction relates to what an individual
chooses to do when presented with a
number of alternatives

• Intensity refers to the strength of response

once the alternative is chosen

• Persistence refers to the staying power of

behaviour or how long a person will
continue to devote effort
Theories of
Motivation
 Theories of Motivation
• Content Theories
• Process Theories
 Motivation Theories
Content Process Motivation
Motivation Theories
Theories • Theories that
• Theories that focus describe and analyze
how behavior is:
on factors within a
– Energized
person that:
– Directed
– Directed
– Energize behavior – Sustained
– Direct behavior – Stopped
– Sustain behavior
– Stop behavior
NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation theories
that specify the kinds of
needs people have and
the conditions under
which they will be
motivated to satisfy
these needs in a way
that contributes to
performance.
 Basic idea:
• Individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation
 Needs Theories of
Motivation
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Herzberg’s two factor theory (motivation-
hygiene theory)
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
• McClelland’s theory of needs
 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS

SELF-ACTUALIZATION

ESTEEM

BELONGINGNESS

SAFETY

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
• Physiological
– includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and
other bodily needs
• Safety
– includes security and protection from
physical and emotional harm
• Social
– includes affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship
• Esteem
– includes internal esteem factors such as
self-respect, autonomy, and achievement;
and external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention
• Self-actualization
– the drive to become what one is capable of
becoming; includes growth, achieving
one’s potential, and self-fulfillment
What the Organization Can Do

5. Self-
Offer adequate actualization
needs
ventilation, heat, 4. Esteem Needs
water, base pay
3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs
 5. Self-
actualization
needs
Offer safe working
4. Esteem Needs
conditions, job
security, health and
3. Belongingness Needs
retirement benefits
2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs
 Offer interaction with
others, participation in
workgroup, good 5. Self-
actualization
relations with needs
supervisors 4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs
 Offer recognition,
status, merit pay.

5. Self-
actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs
 Offer training,
creativity,
promotions,
employee control
over jobs
5. Self-
actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs
Relevance of Maslow’s Theory for
Managers

– Effective managers can anticipate

emerging needs based on individual need
profiles and provide opportunities for
fulfillment.
– The esteem level of needs satisfied by jobs
and recognition provides managers with
the greatest opportunity to motivate better
performance.
 Organizational Relevance
• Financial Incentives
• Employee Recognition
Cartoon
Herzberg Two Factor
Theory
 Contrasting Views of
Satisfaction-
Dissatisfaction
Traditional View
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View

Motivators Hygiene Factors

Satisfaction No Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
• Hygiene factors - necessary, but not sufficient,
for healthy adjustment
– extrinsic factors; context of work
• company policy and administration
• unhappy relationship with employee's supervisor
• poor interpersonal relations with one's peers
• poor working conditions

• Motivators - the sources of satisfaction

– intrinsic factors; content of work
• achievement
• recognition
• challenging, varied or interesting work
• responsibility
• advancement
 Implications of Herzberg’s
Theory

– Satisfaction is not the opposite of

dissatisfaction.
– Meaningful, interesting, and challenging
(enriched) work is needed to satisfy and
motivate employees.
Problems with Herzberg’s
theory

• It ignores situational
variables.
• No overall measure of
satisfaction was utilized.
• The reliability of Herzberg
methodology was
questioned.
•Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Existence
– concerned with providing basic material
existence requirements
• Relatedness
– desire for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships
• Growth
– intrinsic desire for personal development
• McClelland's THEORY OF
NEEDS
 McClelland's THEORY OF
NEEDS
A need theory of motivation that outlines
the conditions under which certain needs
result in particular patterns of motivation.
 McClelland’s Theory of
Needs
• Need for Achievement
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a
set of standards, to strive to succeed
• Need for Power
– The need to make others behave in a way
that they would not have behaved otherwise
• Need for Affiliation
– The desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships
 A Comparison of the Content
Theories
Maslow
Maslow Herzberg
Herzberg Alderfer
Alderfer McClelland
McClelland
(need
(need hierarchy)
hierarchy) (two-factor
(two-factor theory)
theory)

Self-actualization
Self-actualization The
The work
work itself
itself Need
Need for
for
•Responsibility
Responsibility achievement
achievement
•Advancement
Advancement Growth
Growth
Higher Esteem
Esteem Motivators •Growth
Growth
order Need
Need for
for
needs Achievement
Achievement power
power
Belongingness,
Belongingness, Recognition
Recognition
social,
social, and
and love
love
Quality
Quality of
of inter-
inter-
personal
personal relations
relations
among
among peers,
peers, with
with Relatedness
Relatedness Need
Need for
for
Safety
Safety and
and security
security supervisors,
supervisors, with
with affiliation
affiliation
subordinates
subordinates
Hygiene
Basic
conditions Job
Job security
security
needs
Physiological
Physiological Working
Working conditions
conditions Existence
Existence
Salary
Salary
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
OF NEED THEORIES

• Appreciate diversity – Managers must be adept at

evaluating needs of individual employees and offering
incentives or goals that correspond to their own needs.
• Appreciate intrinsic motivation
– Survival in the organization requires
creative and innovative behaviour by
organizational members.

– According to Alderfer, the frustration of

high-order needs prompts demands for
greater satisfaction of lower-order needs
leading to a vicious motivational circle.
 Limitations of Content
Theories
– Each of the theories is conceptually flawed and
culturally bound to the individualism of Western
culture.
– The theories do not provide leaders with a clear,
unambiguous means of predicting specific follower
behavior to satisfy a particular need.
– Empirical findings often contradict their
assumptions that the same needs motivate all
individuals, regardless of their sex or ethnicity.
 PROCESS THEORIES

Motivation theories that specify

the details of how motivation
occurs.
 Process Theories of
Motivation
– Goal-setting theory
– Equity theory
– Expectancy theory
 Goal-Setting Theory

Goal setting: the process of

improving performance with objectives,
deadlines, or quality standards.

• A General Goal-Setting Model

– Properly conceived goals trigger a
motivational process that improves
performance.
 Goal-Setting Theory’s
Assumptions
– Challenging goals produce higher performance
than less challenging goals.
– Specific challenging goals produce higher
performance than no goals or vague or general
goals such as “Do your best.”
– Feedback on goal attainment combined with
goal setting will produce higher performance
– Follower participation in goal setting
produces higher performance.
A Model of How Goals Can
Improve Performance
 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF
GOAL SETTING THEORY
• Set specific and challenging goals.

• Provide ongoing feedback so that

individuals can compare their
performance with the goal.
 Equity Theory

Outcomes A theory
Inputs that individuals
compare their job
input and
outcomes with
those of others &
then respond to
eliminate any
Terms
• Person
• Comparison other
• Inputs (effort, experience, education)
• Outputs (salary raises, salary level,
recognition)
 The four referent comparisons:

• Self-inside: an employee’s experiences

in a different position inside his current
situation
• Self-outside an employee’s
experiences on a position outside his
current organization
• Other-inside another individual inside
the employee’s organization
• Other-outside another individual
outside the employee’s organization
 Consequences of Equity

Motivation
Perceive to Maintain
Satisfactio
d Outcome-
n
Equity to-Input
Ratio
 Consequences of
Inequity
Under-
reward
Ange Tensio Motivation
r n to Change

Perceive
d Dissatisfactio
Inequity n
Motivation
Guilt Tensio
to Change
n
Over-
reward
 Alternatives to Restore
Equity
• Change their Inputs
• Change their Outcomes
• Distort their Perception
• Distort perceptions of others
• Changing the reference person
• Leave the field
 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF
EQUITY THEORY
• Perceived underpayment will have a variety of
negative motivational consequences for the
organization.

• Attempting to solve organizational problems

through overpayment might not have the intended
motivational effect.
 Expectancy Theory
The strengths of the tendency to act
in a certain way depends on the
strengths of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given
outcome to the individual.
 Expectancy Theory
(Vroom)

Individual 1 Individual 2 Organizational

Effort Performance Rewards

1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy

Personal
2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality
Goals
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 50

 Expectancy Theory

Components
Expectan If I try, will
cy I succeed?

If I succeed,
Instrumentalit
what are the
y
consequences
?
Valence How do I feel
about the
consequences?
 A Model

Expectancy

Force
Instrumentali
(Effort or
ty Motivation
Level)

Valenc
e
Thank You