Introduction

Individual differences refers to the fact that people

vary in many ways. As an employee & future
manager, you must recognize and appreciate
individual differences in order to understand &
respond appropriately to the behavior of people in
organizations.
Personality
Meaning
General definitions
 Munn
 Woodworth
Munn

Personality is"most characteristic integration of an

individual's structure & activities".
 Woodworth
Personality is "the quality of individuals total behaviour".
Holistic definition
 Allport
“Personality is the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his characteristic, behaviour &
thought.”
Allport
 Organization
 Dynamic
 Psychophysical System
 Determine
 Characteristic
 Behaviour & Thought
Determinants
 Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were
determined at conception.
Example:
 Physical stature
 facial attractiveness
 gender, temperament
Environment
 Among the factors that exert pressures on our
personality formation are the culture in which
we are raised; our early conditioning; the
norms among our family, friends, and social
groups; and other influences that we
experience. These environment factors play a
substantial role in shaping our personalities.
Situation
 Situation influences the effects of heredity
and environment on personality. An
individual personality, although generally
stable and consistent, does change in
different situations.
 Process
of
Personality Formation
Personality Theories
 Trait Theory
 Psychodynamic Theory
 Psychosocial Theory
 Humanistic Theory
 Integrative Theory
The Big Five Model
 Extroversion
 Agreeableness
 Conscientiousness
 Emotional Stability
 Openness to experience
The Big Five
Model
Erikson Psychosocial Theory
 Stages
 Psychological Crisis
 Important Events
 Controversies
 Process of Personality Formation

Introduction

Eric Erickson's psychosocial theory on social development is an

approach to the personality that encompasses the entire life
cycle and recognizes the impact of society, history, and culture
on personality. Erickson is best known for his concept of the
identity crisis.
Erik Erickson (1978) described eight stages
of the life cycle in terms of psychosocial
crises. He asserts that development can be
successful if the individual is able to resolve the key conflict
which arises during each of the stages.
Conflict or crisis refers to pressures resulting from internal needs
and external demands of society which require a decision and a new
direction. Individuals must resolve the task of each crisis in order to
proceed to the next stage of development.

There are about 8 types of

Crisis that one faces during his
life span
.
 Erik Erickson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial
Development

SNo. Stages Age

1. Stage 1 - Oral-Sensory Birth to 12 to 18
months

2. Stage 2 –Muscular-Anal 18 months to 3years

3. Stage 3-Locomotor Stage 3 to 6 years

4. Stage 4-Latency Stage 6 to 12 years

5. Stage 5-Adolescence Stage 12 to 18 years

6. Stage 6-Young Adulthood 19 to 40 years

7. Stage 7-Middle Adulthood 40 to 65 years

8. Stage 8-Maturity 65 to death

 Stage Psychosocial crisis Important Event Hoped-for
result
Stage 1 Trust versus mistrust Feeding Hope

Stage 2 Autonomy versus Toilet training Will

shame, doubt
Stage 3 Initiative versus guilt Independence Purpose

Stage 4 Industry versus School Competence

inferiority
Stage 5 Identity versus Peer relationships Fidelity (Loyalty)
identity confusion
Stage 6 Intimacy and solidarity Love relationships Love
versus isolation

Stage 7 Generative versus Parenting Care

stagnation
Stage 8 Integrity versus Reflection on and Wisdom
despair acceptance of one's
Stage Summary
Stage 1 The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the
caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust.
Stage 2 The child's energies are directed toward the development of
physical skills, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter
control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if
not handled well.
Stage 3 The child continues to become more assertive and to take more
initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings.
Stage 4 The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense
of inferiority, failure and incompetence.
Stage 5 The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex
roles, politics, and religion.
Stage 6 The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer
feelings of isolation.
Stage 7 Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next
generation.
Stage 8 The culmination is a sense of oneself as one is and of feeling
fulfilled.
Critiques & Controversies of Erikson

Many questions have been raised referring to Erikson's belief

of identity formation.
 More attention is paid to infancy and childhood than to adult
life, despite the claim to be a life-span theory.
Application of Personality
Theory in Organizations
Why Traits are important?
 If certain personality types perform better
on specific jobs, management could use
personality tests to screen job candidates
and improve employee job performance.
 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator

Personality
PersonalityTypes
Types
• •Extroverted
Extrovertedor
orIntroverted
Introverted(E(Eor
orI)I)
• •Sensing
Sensingor
orIntuitive
Intuitive(S
(Sor
orN)
N)
• •Thinking
Thinkingor
orFeeling
Feeling(T
(Tor
orF)
F)
• •Perceiving
Perceivingor
orJudging
Judging(P(Por
orJ)J)
 Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator
Type of Social Extrovert (E)
Interaction Introvert (I)

Sensing (S)
Preference for
Gathering Data Intuitive (N)

Feeling (F)
Preference for
Decision Making Thinking (T)

Perceptive (P)
Style of
Decision Making Judgmental (J)
Extraversion Interest Orientation Introversion
EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION
E
E
Outer world
of actions,
Inner world of
ideas and
I
I
objects, and concepts
people
Sensing iNtuition

Perception
S N
Immediate Inferred
reality and meanings
direct and
experience relationships
Thinking Feeling
Judgment

T F
Reliability of Priorities
logical order based on
– cause and personal
effect importance
and values
Judgment Perception

Environment Orientation

J P
Judging Spontaneity
attitude – – Curious,
Control of awaiting
events and events and
systematic adapting to
planning them
 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
“Take Your Time “On My Honor, to “Catalyst for “Competence +
and Do It Right” Do My Duty…” Positive Change” Independence =
Perfection”

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

“Doing the Best I “It’s the Thought “Still Waters Run “Ingenious Problem
Can With What That Counts” Deep” Solvers”
I’ve Got”

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

“Let’s Get Busy!” “Don’t Worry, Be “Anything’s “Life’s
Happy” Possible” Entrepreneurs”

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

“Taking Care of “What Can I Do “The Public “Everything’s Fine
Business” For You?” Relations – I’m in Charge”
Specialist”
 Uses of MBTI
 Identify learning and teaching styles
 Decide on careers (Example: many managers
are ESTJs)
 Build teams
Major Personality Attributes
Influencing OB
 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self-esteem
 Self-monitoring
 Propensity for risk taking
 Type A personality
 Type B personality
 Resilience
Locus of Control
Locus of Control
The Effect of Locus of Control on Performance
Internals
 Control their own behavior
better
 Are likely to influence others
than being influenced by
others
 More achievement-oriented
Externals
 Prefer a more structured,
directive style of supervision
 Are less satisfied & less
involved in their jobs
 Blame poor performance on
their supervisors, peers,
resources or outside events
(external or beyond their
control)
Dhirubhai Ambani and Reliance
 After working for eight years in Aden, Dhirubhai decided to come back to
India and start something on his own. On December 31, 1958, he came
back to Mumbai and started the Reliance Commercial Corporation (RCC)
with a borrowed capital of Rs.15,000.
 RCC was mainly involved in exporting commodities like ginger,
cardamom, pepper, turmeric, and cashew nut. Using his connections in
Aden, he exported a wide range of commodities to Aden. Aden, being a
free port attracted lot of exports. In the mid 1960s, the Government of
India (GoI) introduced an export promotion scheme under which the
earnings from the export of rayon fabrics could be used for the import of
nylon fiber. This attracted Dhirubhai's attention and he decided to switch
from spices to textiles. In 1966, he set up a spinning mill at Naroda 20
kms from Ahmedabad with borrowed funds of Rs 2,80,000 and registered
it (Reliance Textile Industries) as a power loom unit with a paid up capital
of Rs 150,000...
 Another program, the High Unit Value Scheme introduced by the
GoI in 1971 gave tremendous boost to Reliance textiles. The
scheme allowed the import of polyester filament yarn against the
export of nylon fabrics. RCC was benefited the most from this
scheme and its exports constituted more than 60% of exports under
this scheme. There were rumors that the scheme was solely
devised for Dhirubhai.

Dhirubhai strongly denied the allegations saying that Reliance

cannot be blamed for taking advantage of the scheme ‘when others
kept their eyes shut.’ He said “I do not consider myself cleverer
than my colleagues in the industry. If there was a very large
margin of profit, why did they not take advantage of it?”
Machiavellianism

Conditions
ConditionsFavoring
FavoringHigh
HighMachs
Machs
••Direct
Directinteraction
interaction
••Minimal
Minimalrules
rulesand
andregulations
regulations
People with a high-Mach personality:

 Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.

 Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or
others’ opinions.
 Are skilled at influencing others.

 Try to exploit loosely structured situations.

People with a low-Mach personality:

 Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

structured situations.
 Work hard to do well in highly structured

situations.
 Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.

 Are unlikely to lie or cheat.

 A beggar was sitting at the train station with a bowl full of
pencils. A young executive passed by and dropped a
dollar in the bowl. He then boarded the train. Before the
doors closed, something came to his mind and he went
back to the beggar, grabbed a bunch of pencils, and said,
"They are priced right. After all you are a business person
and so am I," and he left.
Six months later, the executive attended a party. The
beggar was also there in a suit and tie. The beggar
recognized the executive, went up to him and said, "You
probably don't recognize me but I remember you." He
then narrated the incident that happened six months
before.
The executive said, "Now that you have reminded me, I
do recall that you were begging. What are you doing here
in your suit and tie?
“The beggar replied, "You probably don't know what
you did for me that day. You were the first person in my
life who gave me back my dignity. You grabbed the
bunch of pencils and said, 'They are priced right. After
all, you are a business person and so am I.' After you
left, I thought to myself, what am I doing here? Why am
I begging? I decided to do something constructive with
my life. I packed my bag, started working and here I am.
I Just want to thank you for giving me back my dignity.
That incident changed my life."
Self-Esteem
• (T) (F) 1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.
• (T) (F) 2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner
feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
• (T) (F) 3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do
or say things that others will like.
• (T) (F) 4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.
• (T) (F) 5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about
which I have almost no information.
• (T) (F) 6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain
people.
• (T) (F) 7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I
look to the behavior of others for cues.
• (T) (F) 8. I would probably make a good actor.
• (T) (F) 9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose
movies, books, or music.
• (T) (F) 10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing
deeper emotions than I actually am.
 Self Monitoring
 A personality trait that measures an
individuals ability to adjust his/ her
behaviour to adjust to external
environment.

 High self-monitors:
 Sensitive to external cues.

 Behave differently in different

situations.
 Low self-monitors:
 Not sensitive to external cues.

 Are not able to disguise their

behaviors
Risk-Taking
 High Risk-taking Managers
 Make quicker decisions.
 Use less information to make decisions.
 Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations.
 Low Risk-taking Managers
 Are slower to make decisions.
 Require more information before making decisions.
 Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.
Personality Types
Type B Personality
 A pattern of behaviour characterized by a
a casual, laid back style; the opposite of
type A behaviour pattern.
 Jack Smith, former CEO of General Motors, is
described as someone who remains calm in
almost all situations & who rarely loses his
temper. He has been criticized by outsiders
for showing too much loyalty to subordinates
& treating them with “kid gloves” even when
they fail at important task. He is calm &
wants to use “on step at a time” approach
which worked quite well in GM.
Resilience
 Resiliency is the ability to absorb high levels
of disruptive change while displaying minimal
dysfunctional behavior.
 Not all individuals have high resiliency.
However, resiliency skills can be increased
through training.
MATCHING PERSONALITIES WITH
JOBS
 JOB FIT THEORY BY JOHN HOLLAND

 Established the relationship between personality

characteristics, requirement of a job,and job
performance.

 Job satisfaction of an individual is determined by the

extent to which his personality matches with the
requirement of the job.
Personality Types
 Realistic
 Investigative
 Social
 Conventional
 Enterprising
 Artistic
Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations
Relationships among Occupational
Personality Types
MATCHING PERSONALITIES WITH
JOBS
Significant points made by Holland’s Model
are :
 There are some intrinsic differences
among personalities
 There are variety of jobs
 Individuals whose personality matches
with their jobs are more satisfied.
How is Personality Measured?
 How is Personality
Measured?
Projective Test - elicits an individual’s
response to abstract stimuli
Behavioral Measures - personality
assessments that involve observing an
individual’s behavior in a controlled situation
Self-Report Questionnaire - assessment
involving an individual’s responses to
questions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) -
instrument measuring Jung’s theory of
individual differences.
Sixteen Primary Traits or 16PF
Thank You