Shear Strength of Soils

Strength of different
materials
Steel

Tensile
strength

Concrete

Compressive
strength

Complex
behavior

Soil

Shear
strength

Presence of pore water

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear
Embankment
Strip footing

Failure surface
Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear
strength.

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

Mobilized
shear
resistance
Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear
strength.

Shear failure
mechanism

failure
surface

The
soil
grains
slide over each
other along the
failure surface.
No crushing of
individual
grains.

Shear failure mechanism

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

(in terms of total stresses)

f c tan
failu

Cohesio
n

re

pe
o
l
e
env

Friction
angle

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

(in terms of effective stresses)

f c' ' tan '

Effectiv
e
cohesio
n

re
u
l
i
a
f

pe
o
l
e
env

' u

u = pore water
pressure

Effective
friction
angle

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of .

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

Shear strength consists of two
components: cohesive and frictional.

f c' ' f tan '

f tan
c
f

i ve t
s
e
coh ponen
com

'

frictional
compone
nt

c and are measures of shear

strength.
Higher the values, higher the shear
strength.

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

1
Resolving forces in and directions,

1' 3'

Sin 2
2
'
'
'
'

' 1 3 1 3 Cos 2
2
2

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

1' 3'
2

3'

1' 3'
2

1'

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

'

'
1

' 2
3

' 2
3

'
1

3'

1' 3'
2

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

1'

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

Failure surface

f c' ' tan '

Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope
GL

c
Y

c
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

c+

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger

GL

c
Y

c
c
.. and finally failure occurs
when Mohr circle touches the
envelope

Orientation of Failure Plane

1

Failure envelope

, f

3'

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
=

45 + /2

1'

Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v
X

v
h

u
h

effective stresses

v h

total stresses

or

Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective

stresses
v
X

If X is on
failure

v
h

u
h

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

effective stresses

c c

v h

Failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

total stresses

or

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress

v = 1
X

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

h = 3
effective stresses

X is on failure

c
3

c Cot

Therefore,

1' 3'

c' Cot '

2

1' 3'

Sin '
2

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress

1' 3'

c' Cot '

2

'
1

1' 3'

Sin '
2

3' 1' 3' Sin '2c' Cos '

1 Sin ' 1 Sin ' 2c' Cos '

'
1

'
3

'
1

'
3

1 Sin ' 2c' Cos '

1 Sin '
1 Sin '

'
'

Tan 45 2c' Tan 45

2
2

'
1

'
3

Determination of shear strength parameters of

soils (c, orc
Laboratory
tests
on
specimens
taken
from
representative undisturbed
samples
Most common laboratory tests
to determine the shear strength
parameters are,
1.Direct shear test
2.Triaxial shear test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test

Field tests

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Vane shear test

Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Fall cone
Pressuremeter
Static cone penetrometer
Standard penetration test

Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample

vc
hc

hc
vc

Before construction

vc +
hc

hc
vc +

After and during

construction

vc +

Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions
in the laboratory
0

vc
0

0
0

Representative
soil
sample
taken from the
site

l
a
i
x
a
r
T

t
s
te

Di
hc rect
sh
ea
r

hc
vc

hc

vc +

vc
te

st

vc

Step 1
Set the specimen in
the apparatus and
apply the initial
stress condition

hc

Step 2
Apply
the
corresponding field
stress conditions

Direct shear test

Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus

Direct shear test

Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box

Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test

Preparation of a sand specimen

Leveling the top surface

of specimen

Pressure plate

Specimen preparation
completed

Direct shear test

Test procedure

Steel ball
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Direct shear test

Test procedure

Steel ball
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test

Shear box

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to
apply vertical load

Dial
gauge
to
measure horizontal
displacement

Direct shear test

Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

Normal stress
Area of cross section of the sample
Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)
Shear stress
Area of cross section of the sample
Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal
displacement

Direct shear tests on sands

Stress-strain relationship
Shear stress,

Dense sand/
OC clay

f
f

Loose sand/
NC clay

Expansion
Compression

Change in height
of the sample

Shear displacement

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement

Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on sands

How to determine strength parameters c and

Shear stress at failure,

Normal stress = 2

f3

f2

f1

Normal stress = 1

Shear displacement

Mohr Coulomb failure envelope

Normal stress,

Shear stress,

Normal stress = 3

Direct shear tests on sands

Some important facts on strength parameters c and of sand

Sand is cohesionless
hence c = 0

Direct shear tests are

drained
and
pore
water pressures are
dissipated, hence u =
0
Therefore,
= and c = c = 0

Direct shear tests on clays

In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)
Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Normally consolidated clay (c = 0)

Normal force,

Shear stress at failure,

Overconsolidated clay (c 0)

Interface tests on direct shear apparatus

In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil

Foundation material

f ca ' tan

Where,
ca = adhesion,
= angle of internal friction

Triaxial Shear Test

Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane

O-ring
impervious
membrane

Soil
sample

Soil sample
at failure
Perspex
cell

Porous
stone
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure

Pore pressure or
pedestal

volume change

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes
Sample extruder

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample

are carefully trimmed

Setting up the sample

in the triaxial cell

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with
a
rubber
membrane and sealed

Cell is completely
filled with water

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Proving ring to
measure
the
deviator load
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

Types of Triaxial Tests

c
Step 2
Step 1
c

deviatoric stress
( = q)

c+ q

c
Under all-around cell pressure c
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

Consolidated
sample

no

Shearing (loading)
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

no

Unconsolidated

Drained

Undrained

sample

loading

loading

Types of Triaxial Tests

Step 2

Step 1
Under all-around cell pressure c

Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open?

yes

Consolidated
sample

Is the drainage valve open?

no

yes

Unconsolidated
sample

CD test

Drained

Undrained

loading

loading

UU test
CU test

no

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Total,

Neutral, u

Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

Drainage

VC = VC

hC

hC = hC

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +

Drainage

hC

V = VC +
=1

h = hC =3

Step 3: At failure

VC + f

Drainage

hC

Vf = VC + f=1f

hf = hC =3f

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC +

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Expansion

Time
Compression

Volume change of the

sample

Volume change of sample during consolidation

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress,

Dense sand
or OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand
or NC Clay

Expansion
Compression

Volume change
of the sample

Axial strain

Dense sand
or OC clay
Axial strain

Loose sand
or NC clay

CD tests

d)fc
3c
Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a

Confining stress =

d)fb

d)fa
Axial strain

Shear stress,

1 = 3 +
( d)f

Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

3a

3b 3c 1a
( d)fa
( d)fb

1b

1c

or

Deviator stress,

How to determine strength parameters c and

CD tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD
tests, =

Therefore, c = c
and =
cd and d are used
to denote them

CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

3a

1a

or

Shear stress,

( d)fa
Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d
of sand or NC clay

CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd 0
NC

OC

( d)f

or

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

= in situ drained
shear strength

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

Core

= drained shear

strength of clay core

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

= In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.
Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Total,

Neutral, u

Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

Drainage

VC = VC

hC

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +

No
drainage

hC

Step 3: At failure

hC

V = VC + u =1
h = hC u =3

Vf = VC + fuf =1f

VC + f

No
drainage

hC = hC

uf

hf = hC uf =3f

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Expansion

Time
Compression

Volume change of the

sample

Volume change of sample during consolidation

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress,

Dense sand
or OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand
or NC Clay

Axial strain

Loose
sand /NC
Clay

Axial strain

Dense sand
or OC clay

CU tests

d)fb
Confining stress =

3b

Confining stress =

3a

3
d)fa

Shear stress,

ccu

1 = 3 +
( d)f

Total stresses at failure

Axial strain

cu

Mohr

Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

3a

3b

( d)fa

1a

1b

or

Deviator stress,

How to determine strength parameters c and

Shear stress,

How to determine strength parameters c and

1 = 3 + ( d)f uf

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope in terms of
effective stresses

uf

Effective stresses at failure

Mohr

Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ccu

3a

3b
3a

ufa

3b

= 3 - uf

1a
( d)fa

cu

1b
1a

ufb

1b

or

CU tests

CU tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Shear
strength
parameters in terms
of total stresses are
ccu and cu

Shear
strength
parameters in terms
of effective stresses
are c and

c = cd and = d

CU tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c = 0
Mohr Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

3a 3a

1a 1a

cu

or

Shear stress,

Mohr

Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

( d)fa
Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine
cu and = d) of sand or NC clay

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ

undrained shear
strength

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and cu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Data analysis
Initial specimen condition
No
drainage

Specimen condition
during shearing

C = 3
C = 3

No
drainage

3 + d

Initial volume of the sample = A0 H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A H
Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,
A H = A0 H0
A (H0 H) = A0 H0
A (1 H/H0) = A0

A0
A
1 z

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

3 = 3 -uc
C = 3

No
drainage

C = 3

uc

3 = 3 -uc

uc = B 3
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure

Increase of cell pressure

Skemptons pore water
pressure parameter, B

Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 3: During application of axial load
No
drainage

1 = 3 + d- uc

3 + d
3

3 = 3 - uc

ud

uc ud

ud = AB d
Increase of pwp due to
increase of deviator stress

Increase
stress

Skemptons pore water

pressure parameter, A

of

deviator

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3

ud = AB d

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud
u = B [ 3 + A d]
u = B [ 3 + A( 1 3]

Skemptons pore
water pressure
equation

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral, u

V0 = ur

Step 1: Immediately after sampling

0
0

h0 = ur

-ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

No
drainage

C
C

-uruc = -ur c

C +
C

-ur c u

C + f
C

h = ur
V = C + + ur - c
h = C + ur - c
Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

VC = C +ur - C=ur

(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load

No
drainage

Effective,

-ur c uf

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral, u

C + f
C

Effective,

Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

-ur c uf

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.
Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral, u

C + f
C

Effective,

Vf = C + f+ ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

-ur c uf

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0

cu
ub

3a

3b
3

ua

1a
1b
1

or

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

S < 100%

3c 3b

S > 100%

c 3a b

a or

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ

undrained shear
strength

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay

Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC +

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

 1 = VC + f

Shear stress,

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

3 = 0
qu

Normal stress,

f = 1/2 = qu/2 = cu

Various correlations for shear strength

For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, 0

cu
0.11 0.0037( PI )
'
0

Skempton (1957)

Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true

cu
'
0

Overconsolidated

cu
'
0

(OCR ) 0.8

Ladd (1977)

Normally Consolidated

For NC clays, the effective friction angle () is related to PI as follows

Sin ' 0.814 0.234 log( IP)

Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils

Water

Solid

Saturated soils

Pore water
pressure, u

Effective
stress,

Air

Pore air
pressure, ua

Water

Pore water
pressure, uw

Solid

Effective
stress,

Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

f c' ( n ua ) (ua u w ) tan '

Where,
n ua = Net normal stress
ua uw = Matric suction
= a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
( = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan b

Where,
tan b = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan b

Apparent cohesion
due to matric suction

Same as saturated soils

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction

u w) 1

(u a

)2 >
u
w
(u a
>0
)
1
uw

u
( a
0
=
uw
ua

-ua

How it become possible

build a sand castle

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan b

Same as saturated soils

Apparent
cohesion

Apparent cohesion
due to matric suction

an d
s
d
te
a
r
u
0)
sat
=
n

u
c
for
nd (
e
a
p
s
elo
t ed
v
a
n
r
e
u
at
s
ure
l
r
i
o
a
F
ef
0
p
>
o
l

ve
u w)
n

e
(u a
ure
l
i
a
0 F
=
uw
ua

-ua

Vane shear test

What does Vane Shear Test measure?
o

Shear strength
a term used to describe the maximum strength of soil at which point
significant plastic deformation or yielding occurs due to an
applied shear stress.

Undrained shear strength

refers to a shear condition where water does not enter or leave the
cohesive soil during the shearing process

Remolded undrained shear strength

is the peak undrained shearing resistance measured during the initial
rotation of the vane.

Peak undrained shear strength

is the shear strength after significant failure and remolding of the initial
soil structure.

Sensitivity
is the effect of remolding on the consistency of cohesive soil.

Vane shear test

This is one of the most versatile and widely used devices used for
investigating undrained shear strength (Cu) and sensitivity of soft clays
Applied
Torque, T
Bore hole
(diameter = DB)

Disturbed
soil

Rupture
surface

h > 3DB)

Vane
Vane

PLAN VIEW
Rate of rotation : 60 120 per minute
D

Test can be conducted at 0.5 m

vertical intervals

Vane shear test

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me Assuming a uniform
distribution of shear strength
Cu

Cu

d/2

d/2
d
2

Cu
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected

M e ( 2rdr ).Cu r
0

d
2

r
2
M e 2Cu r dr 2Cu

3
3

2Cu d
Cu d
Me

3 8
12

d
2
0

Surface area of the cylinder = 2rh= dh

Vane shear test

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Ms Shaft shear resistance along
the circumference
2

d
d h
M s dhCu Cu
2
2
Cu

Cu
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected

d 2 h Cu d 3
T Cu

2
2
12

d 2h d 3
T Cu

6
2
Cu

T
d 2h d 3

2
6

Vane shear test

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me Assuming a triangular
distribution of shear strength

Cu

Cu
h
d/2

d/2

Cu
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected

Cu

T
d 2h d 3

2
8

Can you derive this ???

Vane shear test

T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me Assuming a parabolic
distribution of shear strength

Cu

Cu

Cu
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected

d/2

Cu

d/2

T
d 2 h 3d 3

2
20

Can you derive this ???

Vane shear test

After the initial test, vane can be

rapidly rotated through several
revolutions until the clay become
remoulded

Cu

peak
Cu
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected

ultimate
Shear displacement

Peak Stength
Sensitivity
Ultimate Stength

Some important facts on vane shear test

Insertion of vane into soft
clays and silts disrupts the
natural
soil
structure
around the vane causing
reduction of shear strength

The
above
reduction is partially
regained after some
time
Cu as determined by
vane shear test may
be a function of the
rate
of
angular
rotation of the vane

Correction for the strength parameters obtained

from vane shear test
Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of soils
increases, Cu obtained by vane shear tests may give
unsafe results for foundation design. Therefore, he
proposed the following correction.

Cu(design) = Cu(vane shear)

Where, = correction factor = 1.7 0.54 log (PI)
PI = Plasticity Index