3.

Definition and theories on bilingualism

(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 20-

28)

General definition: the ability to speak two languages fluently

Bloomfields (1933): the mastery of two or more languages at native-like
level.
Andersson and Boyer (1978): the use of two languages for curricular
instruction in non-language subjects.
- B1 level or higher is necessary for instruction to be effective; at this level
users are independent and competent
Balanced bilingualism: when two languages are used at more or less the
same level.
Semilingualism: It occurs when the mastery of one language is
considerably higher
than another.
BICS (basic interpersonal communicative skills): the ability to maintain a
simple conversation, for example in a shop or in the street. It is
developed with contextual cues (including gestures) and often occurs in
face-to-face situations (Cummins, 1980).
CALP (Cognitive/academic language proficiency): the ability to cope with
study programmes in academic contexts. It is developed in reduced
contexts (i.e. the classroom, conferences, seminars, etc.) (Cummins, 1980).
1

4. Theories on bilingualism

(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 20-28)

1. Balance theory
It represents two languages coexisting in equilibrium, the second
language increases at expense of the first.
Represented with an image of two linguistic balloons inside the head of
the learner; the monolingual individual has one large balloon whereas
the bilingual individual has two smaller ones (see Baker 1993:190).
Cummins (1980, 1981): separate underlying model of bilingualism with
the two languages operating in isolation.
Rejected by research studies: linguistic competence is transferred ad
interactive.
L1
capacit
y

Monolingual individual

L2
capacity

Bilingual individual

Theories on bilingualism 2
2. Common underlying proficiency
Cummins (1980, 1981) illustrates it with an image of two separate icebergs which
are
joined at the base:

Based on these principles:

When using two or more languages, ideas come from a common source.
Individuals can function with two or more languages with relative ease.
Cognitive functioning may be fed by monolingual or plurilingual channels.
The language used by the learner must be developed to process the classroom
cognitive
challenges.
Listening, speaking, reading and writing in the L1 or L2 help the development of
the cognitive
system as a whole.
L2 negative attitudes and a limited competence level affects academic
3
performance

Theories on bilingualism 3
3. Threshold theory
Cummins (1976) and SkutnabbKangas
(1979):
Describes the relationship
between
cognition and the level of
bilingualism.

Upper floor

- Adequate competence in L2 for the

students age.
- Cognitive advantages.

2nd threshold

The closer the students are to

being bilingual, the greater the
chance they have of obtaining
cognitive advantages.
It has been represented as a
house
with three floors and two
linguistic
ladders (L1 and L2) on each
side (Baker 1993:194):

Balanced bilinguals

Medium
Less balanced
foor
bilinguals
- Adequate competence in L2 for the
students age.
- No negative effects.

1st threshold
1st floor

Limited
bilinguals
- Lowest level of competence.
- Cognitive negative effects.

L1

L2
4

Theories on bilingualism 4

Linguistic interdependence hypothesis

-

Based on the relationship between the development of L1 and

L2.
Proposed by Vygotsky (1934, 1986) and Cummins (1978).
Competence in L2 depends in part on the level of competence
already acquired in L1.
The higher the level of development in L1 the easier it will be to
develop the L2.

4. Types of bilingual education

(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 28-30)

1. Bilingual education by submersion

The objective of the bilingual programme is the integration of students in

the
monolingual community.
This is the case of many bilingual programmes in the United States
The students are submersed in the foreign language from the beginning (or
after some form of transitory bilingual instruction).
Sink or swim modalities: students are thrown into the pool in order to
learn to swim without floating aids. The pool is seen as the majority
language (e.g. English in the United States) and students receive lessons in
that language.
The basic objective is to assimilate the majority language and culture.

Types of bilingual education 2

2. Immersion programmes

The objective is to promote the use of two languages at the same

level in order to
maintain the status of bilingualism.
Example: dual immersion programmes in Canada.
Total immersion: 100% instruction in the L2 during the first two
years, reduced to 80% in the three or four years following, and by the
end of primary education 50% of immersion in the L2.
Partial immersion, offers 50% immersion in the L2 throughout
kindergarten and primary education.

Types of bilingual education 3

3. CLIL programmes in monolingual areas

Monolingual areas in which majority foreign languages are promoted in

addition to the L1 (e.g. English in Holland, Denmark, Finland, Spain,
etc.).
Exposition to the L2 outside the classroom is very limited or nonexistent.
Use of two majority languages in the school.
CLIL programmes are used.

5.1. Negative effects of bilingual education

(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 32)

Rossell and Baker (1996): the results of bilingual programmes are

inferior to total
immersion programmes offered in the USA for ethnic minority groups.
Glen (1997): it is better for students to participate in sink-or-swim
programmes than in bilingual ones.
Some difficulties and problems:
Abandonment of the L1 in favour of the L2.
The mixture of L1 and L2 in a single system: problems of interference,
particularly in children in infancy.
Possible negative linguistic and cognitive development.
Difficulties in linguistic expression due to phonetic, semantic, lexical
and morphosyntactical interference from the L1 and L2.
Written expression in L2 is often influenced by L1 as a result of lack of
competence in the second language.
Anxiety, insecurity or frustration in oral communication in L2 with
negative effects in acquisition of written skills.
9

5.2. Benefits of bilingual education

(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 33-36)

Peal and Lambert (1962) found a positive correlation between bilingualism

and high intelligence quotient, bilingualism helped mental agility and the
formation of abstract concepts.
Byalistok (1991) and Diaz and Klingler (1991): positive relationship between
bilingual individuals and thought processes, organisation skills,
reasoning and visual and spatial skills.
Considerable cognitive advantages (Cenoz 2003, Lasagaster 2000, Sigun
1986, 1992, 1996) and near native performance levels after 6-7 years of
immersion.
The competences in subjects taught in the L2 are similar to those acquired
in L1 and there are no significant differences.
The level of knowledge in L1 has a strong influence in the results obtained
in L2 instruction (linguistic Interdependence hypothesis) (Chiswick 1991,
Cummins 2000).
Better intercultural education over the long term (Gonzlez,Guilln,Vez
2010, Riagin/Ldi 2003).
It helps the learning of a third language (Lasagabaster 2007).
Greater metalinguistic capacity than monolinguals (Galambos,GoldinMeadow 1990).
Greater attitudinal competence (savoir-tre) towards languages than
monolinguals.
10

Some fundamental interacting variables in bilingual

education

Students motivation and commitment

Students general skills and L1 development
Positive family, social and cultural environment
Teachers adequate training and incorporation of L2 native
teachers
The teachers characteristics and approach
Quality of the programme offered
Available resources
The L2 should be used for at least 50% of class time
Additive bilingual environment: students study L2 without
jeopardising performance in L1.

11

Effective classroom techniques in bilingual education

(Snow 1990, Madrid y Hughes 2011, Madrid y Madrid 2013)

Integrated curricular design

Maximum use of the L2/Ln and minimum use (or no use) of the L1
Helping the students construct their knowledge establishing
connections between the new and the learnt knowledge to favour its
integration in the students cognitive network
Provision of rich contextual support (e.g. through paralanguage,
etc.).
Reiteration of instructions and organisational guidelines. Repetition
of what is said and done in class.
Use of graphs, conceptual maps, synthesis and summaries.
The ample use of visual materials, realia, and resources which allow
the senses to engage in learning.
Intensive group and cooperative work.
The teacher becomes the linguistic model, so a careful
pronunciation and clear oral expression are vital.
Variety of methods and learning tasks.
The need for high levels of comprehensible input (Krashen 1985).
Adequate error treatment
12

6. Bilingual programmes in Spanish autonomous

communities
(Madrid and Hughes, 2011: 40-49)

6.1. Autonomous Communities with co-official languages

Bilingualism and trilingualism has been intensely developed in the

Spanish regions with a co-official language (Muoz 2005, Sigun 1992,
Vila 1992).
In Catalonia, the curriculum is taught predominantly in Catalonian.
In the Basque Country, three models of bilingualism have been
applied (see Bilbatua 1992, Cenoz 2005, Etxeberra, 2003,
Lasagabaster 2000, 2001, 2005):
Teaching in Spanish with Basque being a separate language subject;
Teaching in Basque and Spanish;
Teaching of the curriculum in Basque (predominant)
Galicia has introduced Galescolas, though Spanish still holds an
important position within the education system (Sobrado 2004).

13

6.2. Andalusia

The Plan de Fomento del Plurilingismo: Una poltica lingstica

para la sociedad andaluza was established to promote
plurilingualism in 2005 (BOJA n 65, de 5 de abril).
Aims to provide the Andalusian population with sufficient
plurilingual competencies to deal with the technological, social
and economic changes of todays society (see Barrios 2007, 2010;
Madrid 2005, 2006).
In June 2011), there were:
762 bilingual schools, 394 in the Primary sector and 368 in
Secondary Education.
Most of them (693 schools) use English as a vehicular
language for he curriculum,
57 schools use French and 12 institutions use German.
This means that 73560 students are receiving bilingual
education in Andalusia.
There are 4415 teachers implied in the project and 1234
native assistant teachers.
14

Effects and benefits of the Andalusian plurilingual

programme
(Jaimez y Lpez Morillas, 2011)

Increase in the number of hours of language study in the school curriculum

Greater coordination and teamwork of language and content teachers.
Promotion of the integration of ICT in the teaching practice.
Elaboration of the Andalusian Integrated Curriculum of Languages (CIL).
Increase in participation in European programmes.
Promotion of schools twinning and exchange visits.
Increase in immersion courses for pupils and teachers.
Creation of a specific training plan for teachers in Bilingual Schools,
including periods of Language Immersion.
Expansion of the network of Official Language Schools.
Expansion of distance language learning.
Aid for the creation of curricular resources, and elaboration of CLIL digital
materials.
Incorporation of the figure of the native-speaking teaching assistant.
Training programmes for language teachers and on methodology, based on
the CEF, for teachers of non-language subjects
Development of intensive L2/Ln courses for all teachers at the Official
Language Schools.
15