The Random Access Memory

Computer Architecture

Kissel Faulve Daryl Ivan Hisola Dindo Jay Lao

Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of


computer memory. RAM is considered "random access" because

you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and
column that intersect at that cell. The opposite of RAM is serial
access memory (SAM).

WHAT IS RAM?
SAM stores data as a series of memory cells that can only be


accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the

current location, each memory cell is checked until the needed
data is found. SAM works very well for memory buffers, where the
data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good
example is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data,
on the other hand, can be accessed in any order.

RAM VS SAM
 In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic random


access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are

paired to create a memory cell, which represents a single bit
of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a
1.The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the
memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.

RAM: WHAT YOU NEED TO

KNOW
RAM: A Closer Look
A closer look at a 168-pin SDRAM DIMM

RAM: A Closer Look
The green board that all the memory chips sit on is actually made up of
several layers. Each layer contains traces and circuitry, which facilitate
DRAM DRAM
because
is the most
the movement
it can only
common
of data.
hold data
form higher
In general,
for a
of RAM.
short
It's called
quality
period
memory
of time
"dynamic"
and
modulesRAM
must be
use
(DYNAMIC RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY) PCBs with more layers. The more layers a PCB has, the more space
refreshed periodically.
there is between traces.Most memory
The more chips
space have
there black ortraces,
is between chromethe
coating,
lesser theorchance
packaging, to protect
of noise their circuitry.
interference. This makesThethe
following
module section
much
titled "Chip
more reliable. Packaging" shows pictures of chips housed in different
types of chip packages.
PCB
(PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD)
RAM: A Closer Look
CONTACT The contact fingers, sometimes referred to as "connectors" or "leads," plug into
the memory socket on the system board, enabling information to travel from the
FINGERS
INTERNAL The magnifying
system board to theglass shows module
memory a layer of theback.
and PCBOn stripped
some away
memoryto reveal the these
modules, traces
etched
leads in plated
are the board.
withTraces areon
tin while likeothers,
roads the
the leads
data travels on.ofThe
are made width and
gold.
TRACE LAYER
CHIP The
curvature of these traces as well as the distance between them affect actual
term "chip packaging" refers to the material coating around the silicon.
both the
Today's
speed and most
the common
reliabilitypackaging is called
of the overall TSOP
module. (Thin Small
Experienced Outline arrange,
designers Package).or
PACKAGING Some earlier
"lay out", the chip
tracesdesigns used DIP
to maximize speed(Dual
andIn-line Package)
reliability packaging
and minimize and SOJ
interference.
(Small Outline J-lead). Newer chips, such as RDRAM use CSP (Chip Scale
Package).
 RAM: A Closer Look
DIP When it was common for memory to be installed directly on the
computer's system board, the DIP-style DRAM package was extremely
(DUAL IN-LINE
PACKAGE) popular. DIPs are through-hole components, which means they install in
holes extending into the surface of the PCB. They can be soldered in
place or installed in sockets.

SOJ SOJ packages got their name because the pins coming out of the chip are
(SMALL shaped like the letter "J". SOJs are surface-mount components - that is,
OUTLINE J-LEAD)
they mount directly onto the surface of the PCB.

TSOP TSOP packaging, another surface-mount design, got its name because the
(THIN SMALL package was much thinner than the SOJ design. TSOPs were first used to
OUTLINE PACKAGE)
make thin credit card modules for notebook computers.

Unlike DIP, SOJ, and TSOP packaging, CSP packaging doesn't use pins
to connect the chip to the board. Instead, electrical connections to the
board are through a BGA (Ball Grid Array) on the underside of the
CSP package. RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) chips utilize this type of packaging.
(CHIP SCALE PACKAGE)
 A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To
store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To
store a 0, it is emptied.
The problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a

matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty.

Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the
memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the
capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge.
To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then

writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically

thousands of times per second.

RAM: MEMORY CELLS

Memory Cells
The Refresh Operation
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name.
Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or

it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing

is
that it takes time and slows down the memory.

Memory cells are etched onto a silicon wafer in an array of

columns (bitlines) and rows (wordlines). The intersection of a

bitline and wordline constitutes the address of the memory

cell.
 Column Address Select

Row Address Select

The Refresh Operation

 DRAM works by sending a charge through the appropriate column

(CAS) to
 activate the transistor at each bit in the column. When writing, the row
lines
 contain the state the capacitor should take on. When reading, the
sense
 amplifier determines the level of charge in the capacitor.

If it is more than 50 percent, it reads it as a 1; otherwise it reads it as a

0. The counter tracks the refresh sequence based on which rows have been
accessed in what order. The length of time necessary to do all this is so
short that it is expressed in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). A memory
chip rating of 70ns means that it takes 70 nanoseconds to completely read
and recharge each cell.
Functions of Memory Controller
Memory cells alone would be worthless without some way to
get information in and out of them. So the memory cells have

a whole support infrastructure of other specialized circuits.

These circuits perform functions such as:

• Identifying each row and column (row address select and column
address select)
• Keeping track of the refresh sequence (counter)
• Reading and restoring the signal from a cell (sense amplifier)
• Telling a cell whether it should take a charge or not (write enable)


Other functions of the memory controller include a series of tasks that

include identifying the type, speed and amount of memory and checking for errors.
The Static RAM
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a
form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A flip flop for a memory cell takes
four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed.
This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM.

However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a

lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get
less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.

Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive
and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache,
while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.
 Memory chips in desktop computers originally used a pin
configuration called dual inline package (DIP). This pin
configuration could be soldered into holes on the
computer's motherboard or plugged into a socket that was
soldered on the motherboard. This method worked fine when
computers typically operated on a couple of megabytes or less
of RAM, but as the need for memory grew, the number of chips
needing space on the motherboard increased.
The Problem:

 Memory chips in desktop computers

originally used a pin configuration called
dual inline package (DIP). This pin
configuration could be soldered into
holes on the computer's motherboard or
plugged into a socket that was soldered on
the motherboard. This method worked fine
when computers typically operated on a
couple of megabytes or less of RAM, but
as the need for memory grew, the number
of chips needing space on the
motherboard increased.
The Solution
 The solution was to place the memory
chips, along with all of the support
components, on a separate printed circuit
board (PCB) that could then be plugged
into a special connector (memory bank)
on the motherboard.
 Most of these chips use a small
outline J-lead (SOJ) pin configuration, but
quite a few manufacturers use the thin
small outline package (TSOP)
configuration as well. The key difference
between these newer pin types and the
original DIP configuration is that SOJ and
TSOP chips are surface-mounted to the
PCB.
 In other words, the pins are soldered
directly to the surface of the board, not
inserted in holes or sockets.
The Memory Module
 Memory chips are normally only available as part of a card
called a module.
 You've probably seen memory listed as 8x32 or 4x16.
These numbers represent the number of the chips multiplied by
the capacity of each individual chip, which is measured in
megabits (Mb), or one million bits.
 Take the result and divide it by eight to get the number of
megabytes on that module. For example, 4x32 means that the
module has four 32-megabit chips. Multiply 4 by 32 and you get
128 megabits. Since we know that a byte has 8 bits, we need to
divide our result of 128 by 8. Our result is 16 megabytes!
History and Evolution
From DIMM to SIMM to SODIMM

History and Evolution
 The type of board and connector used for RAM in desktop computers
has evolved over the past few years. The first types were proprietary,
meaning that different computer manufacturers developed memory boards
that would only work with their specific systems.
 Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module.
This memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .75
inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). In most computers, you had to install
SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and speed. This is because the width of
the bus is more than a single SIMM.
 For example, you would install two 8- megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get
16 megabytes total RAM. Each SIMM could send 8 bits of data at one time,
while the system bus could handle 16 bits at a time. Later SIMM boards,
slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm), used a 72-pin connector
for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of RAM.

 As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability,
the industry adopted a new standard in dual in-line memory
module (DIMM). With 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a
size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in
capacity from 8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed
singly instead of in pairs. Most PC memory modules and the
modules for the Mac G5 systems operate at 2.5 volts, while
older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3 volts.


 Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module

(RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM
but uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.
Memory Signals
A memory IC communicates with the “outside world” through three sets of
signals:
1. Address lines define which row of the memory array will be active. In

actuality, the address is specified as a binary number and conversion

circuitry inside the memory IC translates the binary number into a specific
row signal.
2. Data lines pass binary values (data) back and forth to the defined

address.
3. Control lines are used to operate the memory IC. Read/Write (R/W)

line defines whether data is being read from the specified address or
written to it. Chip Select (CS) signal makes a memory IC active or inactive
(this ability to “disconnect” from a circuit is what allows a myriad of
memory ICs to all share common address and data signals in the
computer). Some memory types require additional signals, such as Row
Address-Select (RAS) and Column Address-Select (CAS), for refresh
operations.

 Most memory available today is highly
reliable. Most systems simply have the
memory controller check for errors at start-up
and rely on that. Memory chips with built-in
error-checking typically use a method known
as parity to check for errors. Parity chips
have an extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The
way parity works is simple.
Parity Bits
 Let's look at even parity first.


 When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the
total number of 1s. If the total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit
is set to 1. If the total is even, the parity bit is set to 0. When the
data is read back out of the bits, the total is added up again and
compared to the parity bit.
 If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data is
assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is
odd and the parity bit is 0, the chip knows that there is an error
somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data. Odd parity works
the same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total
number of 1s in the byte are even.

Parity Bits
 This mechanism enables the detection of single bit errors, because if
one bit gets flipped due to line noise, there will be an incorrect number of
ones in the received data. In the two examples above, B's calculated parity
value matches the parity bit in its received value, indicating there are no
single bit errors. Consider the following example with a transmission error in
the second bit:

 There is a limitation to parity schemes. A parity bit is only guaranteed to
detect an odd number of bit errors. If an even number of bits have errors,
the parity bit records the correct number of ones, even though the data is
corrupt. B observes even parity, as expected, thereby failing to catch the two
bit errors.
Parity vs. ECC
 The problem with parity is that it discovers errors but does nothing
to correct them. If a byte of data does not match its parity bit, then the
data are discarded and the system tries again. Computers in critical
positions need a higher level of fault tolerance. High-end servers often
have a form of error-checking known as error-correction code (ECC).
Like parity, ECC uses additional bits to monitor the data in each byte.
The difference is that ECC uses several bits for error checking -- how
many depends on the width of the bus -- instead of one.
 ECC memory uses a special algorithm not only to detect single bit
errors, but actually correct them as well. ECC memory will also detect
instances when more than one bit of data in a byte fails. Such failures
are very rare, and they are not correctable, even with ECC. The majority
of computers sold today use nonparity memory chips. These chips do
not provide any type of built-in error checking, but instead rely on the
memory controller for error detection.
SIMM and DIMM
 By the time 386 systems took hold in the PC
industry, proprietary memory modules had
been largely abandoned in favor of the
“Memory Module”.
SIMM
 A SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) is light, small,
and contains a relatively large block of memory, but
perhaps the greatest advantage of a SIMM is
standardization. Using a standard pin layout, a SIMM from
one PC can be installed in any other PC. The 30-pin SIMM
provides 8 data bits, and generally holds up to 4MB of
RAM. Later it fell short when providing more memory to
later-model PCs. The 72-pin SIMM provides 32 data bits,
and it could hold up to 32MB (or more). 72-pin SIMM
highlights the use of Error-Correction Code (ECC) instead
of parity.
DIMM
DIMM are identical to SIMMs, but they are larger. In
SIMM each electrical contact on the SIMM is tied together
between the fronts and back, the DIMM keeps front and back
contacts separate—effectively doubling the number of contacts
available on the device. For example, in a 72-pin SIMM, there
are 72 electrical contacts on both sides of the device but are
tied together, so there are only 72 signals. On the other hand, a
DIMM keeps the front and back contacts electrically separate.
Today, virtually all DIMM versions provide 168 pins (84 pins on
each side). DIMMs are appearing in high end 64-bit data-bus
PCs (such as Pentiums and PowerPC RISC workstations).
 SIMMs and DIMMs referred to as composite or non-
composite modules. These terms are used infrequently to
describe the technology level of the memory module. A
composite module uses older, lower-density memory; so more
I.C’s are required to achieve the required storage capacity.
Conversely, a non-composite module uses newer memory
technology; so fewer ICs are needed to reach the same storage
capacity.
Types of RAM
SRAM Static random access memor y uses multiple transistor s,
typically
Dynamic rfour andom to six,
accessfor each
memor memor
y hasymemorcell but doesn't
y cells with have
a
DRAM
a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
paired
FPM DRAM Fast pa ge mode dynamic random access memor y was the
transistor
original and capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
EDO DRAM Extended data-out dynamic random access memor y does
form
not of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit
wait
SDRAM Synchronous dynamic random access memor y takes
of
fordata
all ofby column
the and row
processing of and first
the thenbit
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before the bit before
continuing toitthe
starts
advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly improve
on
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one. Asbit. Maximum
soon as the transferof rate to L2 cache is
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by staying the
on thefirst bit containing
row is located, EDO
the
approximately
DRAM begins 176 MBps.
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and moving nextthrough
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each FPM.
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idea is thattomost
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approximately
the data 264
MBps.
needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is about five
percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in
desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 528 MBps.
Types of RAM
DDR Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like
SDRAM
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card's configuration.
RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data
rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such
high speeds, they generate much more heat than other
types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus
chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a
long thin wafer.
Types of RAM
CMOS RAM CMOS RAM is a ter m for the small amount of
VRAM memor y used
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normally the independent
has two memor y contents.
access ports instead of one,
allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the
RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card
and comes in a variety of formats, many of which are
proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in
the resolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also
used to hold graphics-specific information such as 3-D
geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM
tends to be expensive, so today, many graphics cards use
SGRAM (synchr onous g r aphics RAM) instead.
Perfor mance is near l y the same, but SGRAM is
cheaper.
Memory Techniques
Pa ged T his appr oach basicall y divides system RAM into
memor y
Inter leaved small g r oups
Interleaved memory combines two banks of memory
memor y called
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pairs. Most PCs that use interleaving will allow you to
add memory one bank at a time, but interleaving will be
disabled and system performance will suffer.
Memor y Cache is a small amount of very fast SRAM, which
Caching forms an interface between the CPU and DRAM. The
SRAM operates on the order of 5 to 15 ns, which is fast
enough to keep pace with a CPU using zero wait states.
A cache-controller IC on the motherboard keeps track
of frequently accessed memory locations (and
predicted memory locations), and copies those contents
into cache. When a CPU reads from memory, it checks
the cache first. If the needed contents are present in
cache (cache hit), the data is read at zero wait states. If
the needed contents are not present in the cache
(cache miss), the data must be read directly from DRAM
at a cost of one or more wait states.
Memory Speed and Wait States
All memory is rated in terms of speed—specifically, access time.
Access time is the delay between the time data in memory is successfully
addressed, to the point at which the data has been successfully delivered to
the data bus.
A wait state orders the CPU to pause for one clock cycle to give
memory additional time to operate. Typical PCs use one wait state,
although very old systems might require two or three. The latest PC designs
with caching might be able to operate with no (zero) wait states. More wait
states result in lower system performance. Zero wait states allow optimum
system performance.
There are ways of selecting wait states. First, the number of wait states
might be fixed. Wait states might be selected with one or more jumpers on
the motherboard. Current systems, Pentium computers, place the wait state
control in the CMOS setup routine. You might have to look in an “advanced
settings” area to find the entry.When optimizing a computer, you should be
sure to set the minimum number of wait
states.
How Program instructions
transfer in and out of RAM

Operating system instructions

Operating system interface

When you start a computer, certain operating system files are loaded into RAM
From hard disk. The operating system interface displays the user interface on screen
How Program instructions
transfer in and out of RAM

Web browser instructions WWW

Web browser www
window

When you start a Web browser, the program instruction are loaded into RAM from
The hard disk. The Web browser instructions and certain operating system instruction
are inside the RAM. The Web browser window is displayed on screen.
How Program instructions
transfer in and out of RAM

Hello
Word processing instructions
Web browser and word processing program windowsWWW
World!

When you start a Web processing program, the program instruction are loaded into
RAM from the hard disk. The word processing program along with Web browser and
certain operating system instruction are inside the RAM. The Web browser window
is displayed on screen.
How Program instructions
transfer in and out of RAM
Hello
World!

Web browser
instructions
are being removed Web browser window
from RAM Is no longer displayed
on screen

When you quit a program such as a Web browser, its program instructions are
removed from RAM. The Web Browser window is no longer displayed on screen.
How much RAM do you need?
RAM and OS Requirements
The amount of RAM listed for each
system is estimated for normal usage
Windows XP 128 MB (minimum) – accessing the Internet, word
256 MB processing, standard home/office
Windows Vista 512 MB (minimum)
(recommended) applications and light entertainment.
1 GB (recommended) If you do computer-aided design
Windows 95/98 32 MB (minimum) (CAD), 3-D modelling/animation or
64 MB heavy data processing, or if you are
Windows 64 MB (minimum) a serious gamer, then you will most
(recommended)
NT/2000 128 MB likely need more RAM. You may also
Linux 4 MB (minimum) need more RAM if your computer
(recommended)
Mac OS X 512 MB acts as a server of some sort (Web
(recommended) pages, database, application, FTP or
network).
How to Install RAM
 Most of the time, installing RAM is a very simple and
straightforward procedure. The key is to do your research.
Here's what you need to know:
• How much RAM you have
• How much RAM you wish to add
• Form factor
• RAM type
• Tools needed
• Warranty
• Where it goes
 RAM is usually sold in multiples of 16
megabytes: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024
(which is the same as 1GB). This means that if
you currently have a system with 64 MB RAM
and you want at least 100 MB RAM total, then
you will probably need to add another 64 MB
module.
 Once you know how much RAM you want, check to see
what form factor (card type) you need to buy. You can find
this in the manual that came with your computer, or you can
contact the manufacturer. An important thing to realize is that
your options will depend on the design of your computer. Most
computers sold today for normal home/office use have DIMM
slots. High-end systems are moving to RIMM technology, which
will eventually take over in standard desktop computers as well.
Since DIMM and RIMM slots look a lot alike, be very careful to
make sure you know which type your computer uses. Putting
the wrong type of card in a slot can cause damage to your
system and ruin the card.
 You will also need to know what type of RAM is
required. Some computers require very specific types
of RAM to operate. For example, your computer may
only work with 60ns-70ns parity EDO RAM. Most
computers are not quite that restrictive, but they do
have limitations. For optimal performance, the RAM
you add to your computer must also match the
existing RAM in speed, parity and type. The most
common type available today is SDRAM.
 Additionally, some computers support Dual Channel RAM configuration
either as an option or as a requirement. Dual Channel means that RAM
modules are installed in matched pairs, so if there is a 512MB RAM card
installed, there is another 512 MB card installed next to it. When Dual
Channel is an optional configuration, installing RAM in matched pairs
speeds up the performance of certain applications. When it's a requirement,
as in computers with the Mac G5 chip(s), the computer will not function
properly without matched pairs of RAM chips.
Sources and References
• www.scribd.com
• www.HowStuffWorks.com
• www.en.wikipedia.org
• www.ehow.com
• Google Image Search
• The Ultimate RAM Guide by Kingston