Negative and Complex

Probability in
Quantum Information
Vasil Penchev,
Institute of Philosophical
Research– Bulgarian Academy
of Science
 Contact:
vasildinev@gmail.com
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 “Negative probability” in
practice
ctica l m e a n in g is co n n e cte d to th e a p p li
n tu m in fo rm a tio n ” a n d m o re e x a ctly , o f
m a in : q u a n tu m co m m u n ica tio n . V e ry sm a
spp a ce re g io n s tu rn o u t to b e th e rm o d y n a
o g ica l to th o se o f su p e rco n d u cto r. M a cro
o r sig n a ls m ig h t e x ist in co h e re n t o r e n -
sta te . S u ch p h y sica l o b je cts h a v in g sh o
d in a ry p ro p e rtie s co u ld b e in th e b a se o
m co m m u n ica tiv e ch a n n e ls o r e v e n “ m a t
 Negative probability
I.Why does it appear in
quantum mechanics?
II.It appears in phase-space
formulated quantum
mechanics
III.Next, in quantum
correlations …
IV.… and for wave-
Mathematically: A ratio of


two measures (of sets),

which are not collinear


Physically: Оf ratio of the



measuring of two physical

quantities, which are not
 THE MAPPING
PHASE HILBERT
SPACE

Since both are Σ:

phase space is a Σ of cells:

and the Hilbert of qubits:



the mapping is reduced to:


h e p ro b le m : ( 2 (3
The problem:
) )
 Since x and p are
simultaneously
measurable, then it can

Ψ→ P :
W IG N E R F U N C T IO N
( 1 9 3 2 ) IN
 The original Weyl
transformation (1927)
•


F[f] = ?
 The original Weyl
transformation (1927)
•


F [ f] tu rn s o u t to b e p a rtly
a n a lo g ica l to D ira c ’ s δ-
fu n ctio n s ( S ch w a rtz
d istrib u tio n s)
 Groenewold’s
statistical ideas(1946)
“Our problems are about:
Øα the correspondence a⟺ A
between physical quantities a
and quantum operators A
(quantization) and
Øβ the possibility of
understanding the statistical
character of quantum mechanics
by averaging over uniquely
determined processes as in
 Groenewold’s statistical
ideas (1946)
Øα the correspondence a⟺ A
(quantization), in fact,
generates two kinds пof
problems abut the physical
quantities a:
Øa is not continuous function (it
is either continuous, or
generalized one, distribution);
Øthere exist quantities a whose
 Groenewold’s statistical
ideas (1946)
ØThe difficulties in α ( the
quantization of physical
quantities ) reflect at the
same rate in β ( statistical
description):
ØNegative probability of
some states appears, but they
are easily interpreted
physically by the regions of
 Moyal’s statistical approach
(1949)
“Classical statistical mechanics


is, however, only a special case in

the general theory of dynamical
statistical (stochastic) processes.
In the general cam, there is the
possibility of 'diffusion' of the
probability ' fluid', so that the
transformation with time of the
probability distribution need not
be deterministic in the classical
sense. In this paper, we shall
 Moyal’s statistical
approach(1949)
A single Statistical Description by
system description Ψ-function
Deter- Quantum Probabilstic
minism objects (P ≥ 0 )
distribution
Indeter- Probabilstic Quantum
minism (P ≥ 0 , P < objects
0) distribution

Ensemble Boltzmann Gibbs

non-standard standard
 Moyal’s statistical
approach(1949)
“… phase-space distributions

are not unique for a given

state, but depend on the
variables one is going to
measure. In Heisenberg's
words (5), 'the statistical
predictions of quantum theory
are thus significant only when
combined with experiments
which arc actually capable of
 Moyal’s statistical
approach(1949)
A sin g le q u a n tu m sy ste m a s a
n o n - sta n d a rd B o ltzm a n n
e n se m b le
P∈ℝ + P∈ ℂ P∈ℝ
_
P ∈ ℂ ?
 Equivalences between:
Statistical Description
description by Ψ-functions
Non-standard Boltz- Gibbs
mann ensemble enesemble
Parts (elements) Possible states
of the system (worlds) of the system
Essential parts Orthogonal possible states
(elements) of the system (separated worlds)
External “parts” Non-orthogonal possible
(elements) of the system states (interacting worlds)
 Again to Moyal’s statistical
approach
„… symmetry(or


antisymmetry) conditions
introduce a probability
dependence between any two
particles in B. E . (or F .D.)
assemblies even in the
absence of any energy
interaction. … It is this
dependence which gives rise
Again to Moyal’s statistical
approach
Again to Moyal’s statistical
approach
The parameter γ accepts the


following values: in a Maxwell –

Boltzmann ensem-ble (the
classical case) γ=0; in a Bose –
Einstein ensemble: γ=1 ; in a
Fermi – Dirac: γ=-1. n i , n k are
average frequencies of the
number of articles ai, resp. ak,
 Phase space

Hilbert
space ?
Minkowski sapc
 III. Negative probability
in quantum correlations

T h e b a ttle fo r o r a g a in st
“ h id d e n p a ra m e te rs ” in
q u a n tu m m e ch a n ics
ocal “hidden parameters
usality) against nonloca
nes (quantum correlation
 Gedanken experiment
! (1935)
Einstein – Podolsky – Rosen
Link
 “Die verschränkten
Zustände” of Scrödinger
and the poorLink
“cat” (1935)
The sets of quantum quantities are
considered, and the conclusion is:
“There are no ensembles which
are free from dispersion. There are
ho-mogeneous ensembles…”
Consequently, there are no
homogeneous ensembles, i.e. for
exam-ple those of a single
 A’: ⟺ ≥ 0 ⇒ Erw ( ⟺ ) ≥ 0
B ’: Erw ( a . ⟺ + b . ⟺ +…) =
a . Erw ( ⟺ )+ b . Erw ( ⟺ )+ …, where a , b
∈ ℝ
α‘: ⟺ is a dispersion free
quantity ≝ Erw ( R 1 )=1
[ Erw ( � , φ)=(R φ, φ)]
β‘: ⟺ is a homogenous one ≝{ a , b
∈ ℝ , a+b=1,
 I. {⟺⟺ R } ⇒{ f ( ⟺ ) ⟺ f ( R )}
II . { ⟺ ⟺ R , ⟺ S , …} ⇒{ ⟺ + ⟺ +…
� R + S +…}
“There corresponds to each physical
quantity of a quantum mechanical
system, a unique hyper-maximal
Hermitian operator, as we know … and
it is convenient to assume that this
correspon-dence is one-to-one -- that
 T he theorem and
negative probability
By introducing negative
probability, then expectation is not
additive in general, then the
premises of the theorem are not
fulfilled
Parts (elements) and the deduction
Possible states is not
of the system valid (worlds) of the system
Essential parts Orthogonal possible states
(elements) of the system (separated worlds)
External “parts” Non-orthogonal possible
(elements) of the system states (interacting worlds)
A few equivalent expressions of
them:
1. Non-negative probability
2. Orthogonal possible states
3. Separated “worlds”
4. An isolated quantum
system
(4
)
“The demonstrations of von
Neumann and others, that
quantum mechanics does not
permit a hidden variable
interpretation, are reconsidered. It
is shown that their essential
axioms are unreasonable. It is
urged that in further examination
of this problem an interesting
 5)
((5
)
“His essential assumption" is: Any
real linear
combination of any two Hermitian
operators represents an
observable, and the same linear
combination of expectation values
is the expec-tation value of the
combination. This is true for
quantum mechanical states; it is
 The idea of “Bell’s
inequalities”
by negative probability
Since von Neumann’s theorem is
valid only about nonnegative
probability (expectation
additivity), and quantum
mechanics permits negative
probability, the idea is the domain
of the theorem validity to be
described by an inequality of the
expectation of two quantities (the
 A notion of local or non-
local hidden parameter:
clearing
1. Von Neumannn’s theorem
as well as the theories of
hidden parameters interpret
them as local ones implicitly.
2. Bell’s inequalities discuss
the distinction between loal
and nonlocal parameter
because quantum mechaics
Statistical Description by
description Ψ-function
A non-standard A Gibbs
Boltzmann ensemble ensemble
болц-мановски
Parts (elements) Possible states
ансамбъл
of the system (worlds) of the system
Essential parts (elements) Orthogonal possible states
на системата (separated worlds)
External “parts” Non-othogonal states
(elements) of the system (interacting worlds)

Non - local hidden

 A notion of local or non-
local hidden parameter:
clearing
The notion of non-local hidden
parameter, the notion of the
externality of a system:
1. Not any external
neighborhood, but on-ly a
small one (of the order of a few
ℏ), at that correspondingly, only
in phase space
 A notion of local or non-
local hidden parameter:
clearing
p A near neighbor - hood of t
Δp
ΔxΔp≥ℏ
eberg ’ s uncertainty is “ Groov
Δx
X
A notion of local or non-
local hidden parameter:
clearing
The light
t
cone

M x2
A small x
neighborhoo p
d
The light
cone
 A notion of local or non-
local hidden parameter:
clearing
Lorentz t
invariance
The light is valid/meani
cone out of a small neighborhoo

M x2
A small
neigborho p
x
od
Uncertainty relation is
The light
conemeaningful/ valid ( ? )
within a small neigborhood
 An absolutely immovable
body
Heisenberg’s uncertainty


excludes any absolutely

immovable body as well as any
exactly constant phase volume.
Any body is outlined rather by
an undetermined “aura” or
“halo”, than by a sharp outline.
The aura is within phase space
and its magnitude is
comparable with the Planck
constant. It consists of the
 The “halo” of negative
probability in phase space
P
The probability of non-standard Boltzmann

S =p.x
p

T h e “ h a lo ” o f n e g a tiv e p ro

x
 Again about the comparison of a
Gibbs and of a non-standard
Boltzmann ensemble
A Gibbs ensemble A non-standard
An ensemble of the states of An ensemble
Boltzmann oneof
Description
the system asbya Ψ -functions Statistical
whole parts (P>0, P<0)
No states of
SimultaneouslyP<0 Parts of P<0
description
No such quantities
immeasurable quantities
 A mechanism of
violating Bell’s
inequalities (link)
1 + Е[b(λ),c(λ)] ≥ |Е[a(λ),b(λ)] −
Е[a(λ),c(λ)]|
Hilbert space:
P The presence of
b common possible
a c< states води
implies increasing
P Ψthe possibility of
the other ( non -
a b common ) states in
the mutual system
c S Phase space
 How does negative
probability violate Bell’s
inequalities?
1 + Е[b(λ),c(λ)] ≥ |Е[a(λ),b(λ)] −
Е[a(λ),c(λ)]|
Phase space:
P
b The halo of
negative
a < probability states
c around
S any component
of the system
P “ pushes away ” the
others in its
The notion of proper ( non - common )
part от of phase
effective space
The notion of effective probability
(immediate probabilistic
interaction))
interaction)
A corollary of von Neumann’s theorem after
its genera-lizingfrom an isolated to two or
more interacting sys-tems is the immediate
interaction of probabilities :

P C = ∅
a b
λΨ
P
a
c
C ≠ ∅
b
Ψ
Isolated systems Interacting
The necessary and sufficient condition
systems of
immediate probabilistic interaction is to
share common possible states of
 probability
(immediate probabilistic
interaction)
1 + Е[b(λ),c(λ)] ≥ | Е[a(λ),b(λ)] −
Е[a(λ),c(λ)]|
P An example : Before
the interacting
b ( both systems
a c< separately ) :
a = b = 80 %, c = 20 % ,
aΨ/c=b/c=4
Any of the two
systems After the
“ pushes away” the interacting
other in its
( the two systems
proper states at one )
 probability
(immediate probabilistic
interaction)
1 + Е[b(λ),c(λ)] ≥ | Е[a(λ),b(λ)] −
The
Е[a(λ),c( λ)]halo
| of
P negative pro -
b bability c around
a < any of both systems
c S” push away” the
other in its proper
states ( either a , or
However the halo of negative
probability “ pushes b )
away ” the system itself , any of the
both , to the states of positive
probability , too . They become
A comparison of the statistical
and standard formalism by
means of “efective
probability”
STATISTICAL ONE STANDARD ONE
Различни части от Different states of the system
системата as a whole
Части с отрицателна Any state is one of non-
вероятност negative probability
Relatively higher Relatively higher positive
positive probability probability of the proper
also within a states only within the
separated system common system
An ontological comparison
of the statistical and
standard formalism

?
?
 Kochen − Specker’s theo
(1967)
L in k

The statistical formalism permits to be

calculated together the
simultaneously immeasurable
quantities of the standard formalism.
Kochen-Specker’s theorem displays
that homogenous quantities have
dispersion even also in quantities
simultaneously measurable in
 The KS theorem as a
generalization of von
Neumann’s theorem
ØV o n N e u m a n n ’ s th e o re m co v e rs
iso la te d sy ste m s a n d
sim u lta n e o u sly im m e a su ra b le
q u a n titie s
ØB e ll’ s th e o re m ( in e q u a litie s )
cle a rs u p th e in flu e n ce o f th e
a b se n ce o f h id d e n p a ra m e te rs in
in te ra ctin g sy ste m s
ØT h e K S th e o re m co v e rs iso la te d
sy ste m s a n d sim u lta n e o u sly
 Formalizing the notion of
simultaneous measurability
ØK o ch e n a n d S p e ck e r in te rp re te d
sim u lta n e o u s m e a su ra b ility a s th e
a v a ila b ility o f a co m m o n m e a su re
w h ich re q u ire d th e m e a su re o f th e
se t o f d isco n tin u ity p o in ts ( q u a n tu m
le a p s ) to b e ze ro , i. e . sim u lta n e o u sly
m e a su ra b le q u a n titie s n o t to b e
co n tin u o u s , b u t to b e a lm o st
co n tin u o u s
ØT h e y p ro v e d o n su ch a co n d itio n
th a t h o m o - g e n o u s q u a n titie s h a v e
 Kochen – Specker’s
theorem (link)
T h e re is n o t a n y h o m o m o rp h ism o f
th e a lg e b ra o f sta te m e n ts a b o u t
co m m u tin g q u a n tu m q u a n titie s in to
B o o le a n a lg e b ra
A n im m e d ia te co ro lla ry : th e re is n o
m a p p in g o f a q u b it e v e n o f tw o
sim u lta n e o u sly m e a su ra b le q u a n titie s
in to a b it
T h e re e x ists a p ro p o sitio n a l fo rm u la
w h ich is a cla ssica l ta u to lo g y , b u t
w h ich is n o t tru e a fte r su b sti- tu tin g
 Kochen – Specker’s theorem
and the
Skolemian relativity of the
discrete and continuous
In § 5 a m o d e l o f h id d e n p a ra m e te r in
ℍ 2 o f th e p a r- ticle o f sp in ½ is
co n stru cte d ; h o w e v e r n o su ch m o d e l
a cco rd in g v o n N e u m a n n ’ s th e o re m
T h a t m o d e l o f h id d e n p a ra m e te r is
iso m o rp h ic , in fa ct, to th e m a p p in g o f
a q u b it in to a b it; th e im m e - d ia te
co ro lla ry : th e re is n o m a p p in g o f a
q u b it o f tw o sim u lta n e o u sly
T h e e x p la n a tio n : th e n o tio n o f
m e a su ra b le q u a n titie s in to a b it
sim u lta n e o u s m e a su - ra b ility
 More about Kochen –
Specker’s theorem and the
Skolemianrelativity of the
discrete and continous
ØIn fa ct, w a v e - co rp u scu la r d u a lism in
q u a n tu m m e ch a n ics is a fo rm o f th e
S k o le m ia n re la tiv ity o f th e d iscre te ( in
q u a n tu m m e ch a n ics ) a n d co n tin u o u s
(Øin
T hcla
a t’ssica
s w h ly pah Sy ksics)
o le m ia n ty p e o f
re la tiv ity a p p e a rs a lso b e tw e e n th e
a v a ila b ility o r a b se n ce o f h id d e n
pØaInrath
m ee te
K Srsp a p e r: a q u b it ca n a n d
ca n n o t ( à la S k o le m ) to b e
 Negative probability fo
wave - corpuscular dualism
IV. Negative probability for
wave-corpuscular dualism
IV. Negative probability for
wave-corpuscular dualism

IV. Negative probability

for wave - corpuscular
dualism
 Einstein (1905) (link)
about mass and E = mc 2
energy
“Gibt ein Körper die Energie L in Form
“Gibt ein Körper die Energie L in Form
von Strahlung
ab, so verkleinert sich seine Masse um
L/V . Hierbei ist es offenbar
unwesentlich, daß die dem Körper
entzogene Energie gerade2 in Energie
E = mc
der Strahlung übergeht, so daß wir zu
der allgemeineren Folgerung geführt
werden: Die Masse eines Körpers ist ein
Maß für dessen Energie-inhalt; ändert
sich die Energie um L, so ändert sich
link
Einstein (1905)
about quanta and
energy
In contemporary designations: Е=ℏ ν
In original designations :
“ непрекъсната среда, която се състои
от енергийни кванти с големина
R βν /N ”, „ wobei R die absolute
Gaskonstante, , N dieAnzahl der
„wirklichen Moleküle" in einem
The contradictory …
Grammäquivalent aspects
bedeutet of”, and “β=
continuity ( radiation
4.866⟺ 10 as
-11 ” a continuous
medium ) and discreteness ( light
consists of energy quanta ) are
combined by their separation in
 Einstein (1905)
link
about quanta and
energy
Light is discrete (corpuscular) in its
interaction with matter, but it is
continuous (wave) as a medium „by
itself” which is propagated in space.
Quantum mechanics transferred
initially that property formu-lated
about electromagnetic radiation to all
the quantum, and in fact, to all the
physical objects. Afterwards it has
abandoned the separation of different
 Einstein (1905)
link about quanta and
energy
The hypothesis of hidden
parameters from such a
viewpoint, in fact, conserves
the original and already
clearly formulated (1905)
Einstein’s opinion to be
separated the two
contradicting aspects of
The notion of energy and: non-
commuta-bility or wave-
corpuscular dualismлизъм
Consequently, energy à la Einstein
is already de - termined in two
incompatible ways: as a conti - nual
quantity of mass and as a discrete
number of quanta. Mechanical energy
in classical physics is the sum of
kinetic and potential energy:
E = Ek ( p )+ Ep ( x ) . Transferred in
quantum mecha - nics , it is the sum
of momentum and location functions ,
which are simultaneously non -
measureable . That sum is measured
 The notion of energy and: non-
commuta-bility or wave-
corpuscular dualism
on Neumann ( 1932 ) had already pointe
t non - commutability refers only to
plication , not to the addition of o
s and had given the example just abo
f energy as a sum of simultaneously
asurable quantities. A possible deci
the appearance of discreteness (quan
in quantum mechanics to be ascribed
he sum or availability of non - commut
imultaneously immeasurable ) quantiti
 An attempt of ordering the
v io la tio n o f B e ll’ s in e q u a liti
n te ra ctin g q u a n tu m sy ste m s
notions R e lastiv ity : L o re n tz
N o n co m m u tin g q - titie
N o n co m m e su ra in v a ria n ce
C o m m u tin g q - titie
bN le
e uqm. a n n ’ s th e o re m
N o n - lo ca l ca u sa lity
C o m m e a s u ra b le q
W a v e - co rp u scu la r C la ssica l
d u a lism ; th e co n tin u o u s
a b se n ce o f h id d e n q u a n titie s
p a ra - m e te rs; th e K S
T h e a b se n ce
th e o re m ; iso la te d L o ca l
o f ca u sa lity ca u sa lity
Fquulfillin
a n tu mg Bsy ste
e ll’ s minse q u a litie s
N e g a tiv e p ro b a b ility
E n e rg y
In fo rm a tio n a s
 The principles of
general relativity Link
(1918)
Einstein formulated the first
two principles as follows: „a)
Relativitäts-prinzip: Die
Naturgesetze sind nur Aussa-gen
über zeiträumliche Koinzidenzen;
sie finden deshalb ihren einzig
natürlichen Ausdruck in allgemein
kovarianten Gleichungen. b)
Äquivalenzprinzip: Tragheit und
 The principle of relativity
Einstein reformulated the
principle of relativity in
mathematical language as
follows: the invariance of physical
laws towards difeomorfisms. The
discrete transformations were
excluded by that way. However
they are the essential subject of
quantum mechanics.
Correspondingly, the uniting of
quantum mechanics and relativity
 A possible generalization of
the principle of relativity and
negative probability
The wave-corpuscular dualism
considered as adefinite type of
generalization about the principle
of relativity introduces negative
probability. The following
hypothesis can be advanced: that
any relevant generalization of the
principle of relativity which
includes discrete morphisms
The principles of general
relativity (1918)
The original variant:

The repaired variant with the

cosmological constant λ:
 The principles of general
relativity (1918): Mach’s
principle (link)
Einstein: „c)
„ Machsches Prinzip:
Das G-Feld ist restlos durch die
Massen der Körper bestimmt. Da
Masse und Energie nach den
Ergebnissen der speziellen
Relativitäts-theorie das Gleiche
sind und die Energie formal durch
den symmetrischen Energie-tensor
(Tμν ), beschrieben wird, so besagt
 Generalizing Mach’s
principle
However it seems that the
However it seems that the
generalization of general
relativity (introducing negative
proba-bilities) implies restricting
the validity or gene-ralizationof
Mach’s principle: The generating
by negative probabilities
restriction of the deg-rees of
freedom of a part of a system can
be equivalently equated with
energy and hence, with mass. For
 A relation between non-
commutability, wave-
corpuscular dualism, and
“hidden parameters”
co m m u ta b ility is a su fficie n t, b u t n o
sa ry co n d itio n o f d iscre te n e ss ( q u a n
e n ce , o f w a v e - co rp u scu la r d u a lism
e - co rp u scu la r d u a lism is a n e ce ssa ry
ie n t co n d itio n o f th e a b se n ce o f lo ca
n p a ra m e te rs a s w e ll a s o f n o n - lo ca l
n tro d u ctio n o f n o n - lo ca l h id d e n p a ra
la B e ll im p lie s th e v io la tio n o f w a v e
la r d u a lism : o n ly w a v e s o r o n ly p a rt
 A relation between non-
commutability, wave-
corpuscular dualism, and
“hidden parameters”
ØM a th e m a tica l n o n - co m m u ta b ility
is in te rp re te d a s sim u lta n e o u s
n o n - co m m e a su - ra b ility o f
co rre sp o n d in g q u a n titie s
ØT h e co m m e a su ra b ility o f p h y sica l
q u a n titie s is in te rp re te d a s
m a th e m a tica l co m m e a su ra - b ility ,
i. e . a s th e a v a ila b ility o f g e n e ra l
m e a su re
Again about the KS theorem as
a generalization of von
Neumann’s theorem
 Again about a Skolemian
relativity of “hidden
parameters”
If th e th e o re m K S i e s e q u iv a le n t w ith
w a v e - co rp u s - cu la r d u a lism , th e n th e
v e ry a b se n ce o f h id d e n p a ra - m e te rs in
quantum mechanics should consider
a s e q u iv a le n t w ith a S k o le m ia n
re la tiv ity o f th e co n ti- n u a l a n d
d iscre te . H o w e v e r th e ir
co u n te re x a m p le co n ce rn in g a lso th e ir
p ro p e r co n stru ctio n d isp la y s th a t e v e n
th e v e ry a b se n ce o f h id d e n
p a ra m e te rs is re la tiv e . C o n se q u e n tly и
 Contramotion, Janus
Poluektovich
(A-Janus & S-Janus) and his
parrot Photon
C o n tin u o u sly
to th e fu tu re

D iscre te ly
to th e p a st
 Contramotion, Janus Poluekt

(A-Janus & S-Janus) and h

parrot Photon

А. и Б. Стругацк
Понедельник
начинается
в субботу.

А - J anus and the wo

S - Janus with Photon
люстратор
гений Мигунов
 Wave-corpuscular dualism,
contramotion and negative
probability
M q o
The world a u b
Positive c a j
A-Janus probabilit r n e
o t c
S-Janus ! y u t
m s
us = (A- janus ) &(S- Janus )
Photon Negative
 Parrot and Cat
(a quantum fable)
ramotion is the sufficie
not necessary condition
coherent superposition

Scholia: Schrödinger’s
cat has eaten Photon, the
parrot – contramotioner
 Dicac’s conception about
Lin k
negative probability
“ N e g a tiv e e n e rg ie s a n d p ro b a b ilitie s
sh o u ld n o t b e co n sid e re d a s n o n se n se .
T h e y a re w e ll- d e fin e d co n - ce p ts
m a th e m a tica lly , lik e a n e g a tiv e su m o f
m o n e y , sin ce th e e q u a tio n s w h ich
e x p re ss th e im p o rta n t p ro - p e rtie s o f
e n e rg ie s a n d p ro b a b ilitie s ca n still b e
u se d w h e n th e y a re n e g a tiv e . T h u s
n e g a tiv e e n e rg ie s a n d p ro b a b ilitie s
sh o u ld b e co n sid e re d sim p ly a s th in g s
w h ich d o n o t a p p e a r in e x p e rim e n ta l
 Pauli about negative
probability (link)
co n n e ctio n o f th e th e o ry o f G u p ta - B
d iscu sse d th e in tro d u ce d b y th e m f
o f “ n e g a tiv e p ro b a b ilitie s” ; the norm
; and the expectation

η is a n H e rm itia n o p e ra to r w h ich in
s a n o p e ra to r m e a su re in H ilb e rt sp a
 Pauli about negative
probability
h ca se s , th e n o rm re m a in s co n sta n t in tim
H a m ilto n ia n o f th e sy ste m is a H e rm itia n
If η is n o t a n H e rm itia n o p e ra to r, e v e n a
co n d itio n , th e n o rm co n se rv e s co n sta n t

te rp re ta tio n : T h e o p e ra to r η ca n b e th o u
v a le n t te n so r w h ich tra n sfo rm s a H ilb e rt
o th e r. T h e a p p ro a ch o f R ie sz ’ s represent
m ca n b e u se d fo r v e ry im p o rta n t co n clu
th e o p e ra to r m e a su re η a n d its p h y sica l
e ta tio n
re
 The operator measure η
interpreted physically
η=1 The Hilbert space is the same

η is a Hermi- The two Hilbert spaces are

tian operator collinear
η is any The two Hilbert spaces are not
operator collinear and they are scaled

T h e ca se o f e n ta n g le m e n t
T h e ca se d iscu sse d b y P
 The operator measure η
interpreted physiscally
n e ra l, o n e - to - o n e co rre sp o n d e n ce is v a l
e n a n y o p e ra to r in H ilb e rt sp a ce a n d a p

so r o f a n y fin ite v a le n ce k + l ca n b e re p re
p e ra to r in H ilb e rt sp a ce a n d co n se q u e n t
n it:
The physical interpretation of
operator measure η:
conclusions
ØIn the spirit of Skolemian relativity,
any system of entangled subsystem can
be represented equivalently both as an
independent, isolated, indivisible system
and as an arbitrary operator (an operator
measure η) transforming a point of
the Hilbert space of the one system
into that of another system
 The physical interpretation of
operator measure η:
conclusions
ØThe conclusion just above implies particu-
larly (entanglement = 0), that any measured va-
lue of a quantity in the system ‘an apparatus –
a quantum object’ is ‘the objective value’ of
that quantity of the quantum object: no hidden
parameter deterministically among its random
values
ØThe Hermitian character of any physical
quantity generalizes also about discrete
functions the requirement that the value is in
a exactly given point of time
 The conclusions of operator
measure η
ØΨ-function represents that a quantum quanti-
ty can obtain non-zero values only on areas
whose common measure is zero. The absence
of hidden parameter is due of the zero measure
of any area with non-zero values. The same is
represented by Dirac’s δ-function. The zero
measure of any area with non-zero values is
a mathematical way to be represented of uncer-
tainty relation
ØAny Ψ-function can be interpreted as the
operator measure η of a quantum object en-
tangled with its environment
 Lin k
Feynman about negative
probability
I m e n tio n F e y n m a n ’ s a rticle m a in ly
b e ca u se it is o fte n cite d . H e d id n o t g o
b e y o n d D ira c ’ s a p p ro a ch o f
in tro d u cin g n e g a tiv e p ro b a b ilitie s o n ly
co n v e n tio n a l- ly , in th e co u rse o f
ca lcu la tio n s , in a sim ila rity o f
“ negative money ” . H e g a v e m a n y
e x a m p le s fro m cla ssica l a n d q u a n tu m
p h y sics . N e g a tiv e p ro b a b ility in th e m
m e a n t th a t th e h a p p e n in g o f a n e v e n t
d e cre a se d o f th e re a lizin g o f a n o th e r:
 A few mathematical
questions
co n sid e r:
rtle tt’ s a p p ro a ch fo r in tro d u cin g
v e p ro b a b ility b y m e a n s o f th e ch
e ristic fu n ctio n o f ra n d o m q u a n ti
a so n ’ s th e o re m a b o u t th e e x istin
su re in H ilb e rt sp a ce
ch e n – S p e ck e r ’ s th e o re m a g a in ,
in a sta tistica l in te rp re ta tio n
 Bartlett’s properly
mathematical approach to
negative
p 1 +probability
p 2 =p
“ Since a negative probability implies
automatically a complementary
probability greater than unity , we
shall reconsider (1) with all
restrictions on the values of the
individual p r removed , provided that
the sum remains finite equal to the
conventional sum of unity . For those
familiar with the correspondence
between probability theory and the
theory of measure , it is noted that
the parallel extension in this more
 Bartlett’s properly
mathematical approach to
negative probability
p 1 +p 2 =p :
“… which is always the algebraic
difference of
two positive functions ” “ Thus
probabilities in
the original range 0 to 1 , as we
might reasonably expect , still retain
their special significance . It is
only these probabilities which we can
immediately relate with actual
frequencies ; it is only these
probabilities , for example , for which
 Bartlett about negative
probability
“ R andom v a ria b le s a re
co rre sp o n d in g ly g e n e ra lize d to
in clu d e e x tra o rd in a ry ra n d o m
v a ria b le s ; th e se h a v e b e e n d e fin e d in
g e n e ra l, h o w e v e r, o n ly th ro u g h th e ir
ch a ra cte ristic fu n ctio n s . ” “ N e g a tiv e
p ro b a b i- litie s m u st a lw a y s be
co m b in e d w ith p o sitiv e o n e s to g iv e
an o rd in a ry p ro b a b ility b e fo re a
p h y sica l in te rp re ta tio n is a d m issib le .
T h is su g g e sts th a t w h e re n e g a tiv e
p ro b a b ilitie s h ave a p p e a re d
 Ψ-function as the
characteristic function of a
random quantity
t’ s a p p ro a ch d ire cts to th e th o u g h t to d i
tio n a s th e ch a ra cte ristic fu n ctio n o f a p h
ty w h ich is ra n d o m , o r m o re e x a ctly , o f t
n a te s in co n fig u ra tio n sp a ce . T h e u tiliza t
tio n a s th e ch a ra cte ristic fu n ctio n in ste a
b a b ilistic d istrib u tio n o f ra n d o m q u a n tit
v a n ta g e o f d e scrib in g its b e h a v io r in g e n
so in a d iscre te ch a n g e o f p ro b a b ility ( a
a p ) w h e n th e p ro b a b ilistic d istrib u tio n it
in t is re p re se n te d b y δ- fu n ctio n
 Ψ-function as the
characteristic function of a
random quantity
it is w h a t is a v a ila b le in a ll th e p h e n o m e
le m e n t: w h e n th e p ro b a b ilistic d istrib u ti
a n tu m o b je ct re stricts im m e d ia te ly th e d
d o m o f a n o th e r; a s a re su lt o f th a t “ in fo r
in te ra ctio n , th e p ro b a b ility o f a g iv e n p o
d iscre te le a p in th e g e n e ra l ca se . T h e d
u e in th a t p o in t o f th e p ro b a b ilistic d istr
d it is m o st im p o rta n t th a t it ca n n o t h a v
o rm co n v e n tio n a lly a cce p te d a s u n it. It s
 Ψ-function as the
characteristic function of a
random quantity
r th e d iffe re n tia l p ro b a b ility is > 1 in th e
h e d iscre te ch a n g e o f p ro b a b ility , then i
a p p e a ra n ce a n d in tro d u ctio n o f n e g a tiv e
ty fo llo w in g B a rtle tt’ s a p p ro a ch : p = p 1 + p
, keeping p = 1 , then p 2 < 0 ! Consequently
e of negative probability , in last analy
e availability of the discrete leaps of
ome points . It is what forces to be util
on ( it is the characteristic function ) i
bilistic distribution itself of the ran
 Ψ-function as the
characteristic function of a
random quantity
e stio n - h o w ψ- fu n ctio n p ro v e s o u t to
be
istic fu n ctio n ? - remains yet . Let ’ s see :
p( x )
…
…
The “ trapezoids ”
xsummed in ∞
form the integral !
The ψ - function ( on the right ) is
obtained by the pro -
balistic distribution ( on the left ) as
the integral is substituted by an
infinite sum of constants (“ trape -
 Gleason’s theorem about
measures Lin k
in Hilbert space
T ill n o w w e h a v e d iscu sse d n e g a tiv e
o r co m p le x p ro -
b a b ilitie s a s re la tio n s o f m e a su re s :
h ow ever an y of
w h ich is a n o n n e g a tiv e re a l n u m b e r.
G le a so n ’ s th e o -
re m d isp la y s th a t a n y m e a su re o f su ch
a n o rd in a ry
ty p e in a H ilb e rt sp a ce o f d im e n sio n
m o re th a n tw o n e ce ssa rily co n se rv e s
th e o rth o g o n a lity o f th e d i- m e n sio n s.
 Gleason’s theorem about
measures Lin k

In
in Hilbert space
o th e r w o rd s, w h e th e r n o t to b e th e
co m p le x m e a su re a d e q u a te o n a n y
“ cu rv e d ” , i. e . h a v in g n o n -
o rth o g o n a l b a sis , H ilb e rt sp a ce o f
d im e n sio n m o re th a n 2? W h a t is th e
sig n ifica n ce o f th e e x se p tio n o f
GT le
h ea so
id en a’ sisthth
e oa re
t th
m ea eb xo eu pt tio
2 n about 2
dd im
im eenn sio
sionn s? s g u a ra n te e s th e
“ backdoor ” , through which a
S k o le m ia n ty p e o f re la tiv ity b e tw e e n
“ flat” and “ curved ” Hilbert space can
p a ss th ro u g h in to a n a lso
 Gleason’s theorem about
measures Lin k
in Hilbert space
so n ’ s th e o re m itse lf sta te s:
μ b e a m e a su re o n th e clo se d su b sp a ce s o f a
ra b le ( re a lo r co m p lex ) H ilb e rt sp a ce ℋ
e n sio n a t le a st th re e . T h e re exists a p o sitive
d e fin ite se lf-a d jo in t o p e ra to r T o f th e tra ce cl
th a t fo r a llclo se d su b sp a ce s A o f ℋ
μ( A ) = trace ( TP A ),
P A is the orthogonal projection of ℋ onto
leason 1957 : 892 - 893 )
 Bell’s interpretation (1966)
of
Gleason’s theorem (1957):
“… if the dimensionality of the state
space is greater than two, the
additivity requirement for expectation
values of commuting operators cannot be
met by dispersion free states” ( Bell
1966 : 450 ).

In other words , Bell ( 1966 )

interpreted Gleason ’ s theorem
according to the missing yet then
theorem of Kochen and Specker ( 1967 )
 Bell’s interpretation (1966)
of
Gleason’s theorem (1957):
“ It was tacitly assumed that
measurement of an
observable must yield the same value
independently of what other
measurements may be made
simultaneously” ( Bell 1966 : 451 ).
In other words , Bell ’ s objection ( 1966 )
to Gleason ’ s theorem can cover the
missing yet then theorem of Kochen
and Specker ( 1967 )
 Kochen – Specker’s
theorem, Link
statistically interpreted
the theorem has a clearly expressed “ an
” meaning : quantum mechanics uses probab
istributions , which are not statistics .
ade till now discussion , that is so beca
ould exist states of negative probabili
y they are not states in a restricted ,
cal meaning . They represent immediate in
of statistical states , i . e . the distribut
tates . That system is not before or inde
its states . The parts of a system are no
e of its states .
 Accents:
1 . Negative or complex probability
appears there , where the measure of
two “ parts ” or of a “ part ” and the
“ whole ” form any angle . It can happen
then when the probability is
geometric .
2 . Negative or complex probability
cannot be excluded from considering
in quantum mechanics since any
quantum object consists of two
“ parts ” : wave and corpuscular one .
3 . That ’ s why the effects of relative
“ rotated ” measures are observed in any
separated quantum object as well as in
the systems of quantum objects . They
 Conclusion:
The introducing of negative
probability helps quantum
mechanics to be represented
quasi - statistically by means of
quasi - probabilistic distributions .
The states of negative probabili -
ty cannot happen , but they , where
they are , decrease the sum
probability of the integrally
positive regions of the
distributions . They reflect
immediate interaction
 That was all!
Thank You for Your kind
Attention!