Azas Azas Kajian Lingkungan

Bahan Kajian
MK. Kajian Lingkungan dan

Pembangunan
AZAS DASAR
KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN
Smno.psdl.pdkl.ppsub2013
Loughborough University, 2004
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical
and biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of
the environment, and the solution of environmental problems.
Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary
approach to the study of environmental systems.
Environmental scientists work on subjects like the

understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative
energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural
resource management, and the effects of global climate
change.
Environmental issues almost always include an interaction
of physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the
analysis of environmental problems.
Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include
the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as
quantitative analysis.
dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science
LoughboroughDiunduh
University,
2004
What is the definition of environmental science?

a mix of human, social and environmental geography
Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Definition_of_environmental_science_in_detail#ixzz23v7sgcKr
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
the branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms and their
environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
the branch of science concerned with the physical, chemical, and biological
conditions of the environment and their effect on organisms.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE is the study of environmental systems. It interprets
the impact of human actions on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and develops
strategies for restoring ecosystems. It also helps planners develop and construct
buildings, transportation corridors, and utilities that protect water resources and
reflect efficient and beneficial land use.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE is the study of how living things impact the nonliving things of the earth like the water supply and air quality and how we need to
protect or restore areas of the planet.
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES is the body of knowledge related to the

interactions between people and the natural world and is an important ingredient of a
liberal education.
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES is the interdisciplinary academic field which

systematically studies human interaction with the environment in the interests of
solving complex problems. It is a broad field of study that includes also the natural
environment, built environment, and the sets of relationships between them. The field
encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and environmental science, as well
as associated subjects such as ethics, policy, politics, law, economics, philosophy,
environmental sociology and environmental justice, planning, pollution control and
natural resource management. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_studies)
Loughborough University, 2004Diunduh dari:
WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES?

Environmental Studies is concerned with the interactions between human beings and
the environment. It is interdisciplinary in the sense that the field is related to many
branches of the natural and human sciences and environmental studies graduates go
on to address many interdisciplinary problems.
Topics in Environmental Studies include:
Sustainability and development;
Environmental justice;
Biological conservation;
Environmental theology;
Natural and environmental history;
Environmental ethics; environmental thought;
Environmental sociology and psychology; human ecology;
Social movements and political ecology; environmental education and
communication;
Risk policy and perception;
Environmental policy and law;
Native studies; animal rights and welfare;
Technology and cultural studies;
Gender, labour, race and the environment;
International development;
Public participation;
Ecocriticism; deep ecology; and environmental literature.
Diunduh dari:University,
http://www.kingsu.ca/academic-programs/majors/environmental-studies.html
Loughborough
2004
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
There is general agreement among experts that prevention is the key to the
conservation of biodiversity. It costs far more to repair damage to biodiversity than it
does to incorporate biodiversity conservation into planning and development. The
key to prevention is understanding the ecological concepts and principles of
biodiversity and how to apply this understanding to the conservation of biodiversity.
The Value of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of species and ecosystems that have co-evolved over thousands of
years and the complex ecological processes that link them together and sustain the whole. As the
name suggests, biological diversity includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), diversity
between species and diversity of ecosystems.
There is an obvious relationship between healthy ecosystems and human well-being. Biodiversity is
far more than the natural capital for B.C.'s resource-based economy. Species diversity is the source
of food, building materials, energy and medicines and of services such a pollination, waste
assimilation and water filtration. Genetic diversity within species makes possible the commercial
breeding of higher-yield and disease-resistant plants and animals, and allows for adaptation to
changing climatic conditions. Ecosystem diversity, in addition to fostering species and genetic
diversity, enhances our quality of life through recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual
enrichment opportunities.
DiunduhUniversity,
dari: http://www.biodiversitybc.org/EN/main/where/131.html
Loughborough
2004
DEFINING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In the Sustainable Development Act, passed in 2006, the Qubec government adopted
the Brundtland Report's definition with the following elaboration:
"Sustainable development is based on a long-term approach which takes into account
the inextricable nature of the environmental, social and economic dimensions of
development activities."
Pillars
Sustainable development pillars and development objectives

Objectives
Sustainability
Equity
Diversification
Collaboration
Economy
Promote interregional Respect the diversity

Produce long-lasting
Develop human
and intergenerational of economic
spinoffs.
capital.
equity.
structures.
Society
Respond to present
and future social
needs.
Environment
Promote equal
Prevent the
access to
destruction of natural
environmental
resources.
assets.
Promote social and

interpersonal equity.
Respect local
identities.
Develop participation
and partnership.
Promote diversity in
the biophysical and
human
environments.
Develop
environmental
awareness.
Adapted from Larrue, Corinne, valuation environnementale pralable des contrats de plan tat-Rgion et
documents uniques de programmation 2000-2006, ministre de l'Amnagement du territoire et de
l'Environnement, France, 1999.
Sustainable development concept

Sustainable
Environmental studies and measures
Agreements with communities
Energy efficiency
Livable
Protection of biodiversity
Mitigation measures
Multipurpose use of facilities
Equitable
Services adapted to specific clienteles
Regional economic spinoffs
Partnering arrangements
Viable
Reuse of insulating oil
Recovery of poles
http://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/approche/definir.html
Loughborough
2004
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Concern over the possible human health effects, resulting from exposure to
hazardous substances disposed to landfill sites, has driven the need for the
application of risk assessment to such scenarios. Particularly of concern is the fact
that existing hazardous waste sites may not have been designed with sufficiently
preventative considerations for human health or the environment in mind.
The requirement, therefore, is to carry out risk assessments on a site-specific basis
with the objective of determining the risks to which the human population and the
environment are exposed. It is also possible and desirable to include risk assessment
in the design process and planning stage of future disposal sites.
Conceptual model of landfill exposure sources and environmental pathways

(source - Petts, J and Edulgee, G. Environmental Impact Assessment for Waste
Treatment and Disposal Facilities. p 229. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. 1994)
Diunduh dari: University,

http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/GH-07-97-595-EN-C2/chapter7h.html
Loughborough
2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 1: KEKEKALAN ENERGI
(HUKUM THERMODINAMIKA I)
Semua energi yang memasuki sebuah
organisme hidup, populasi atau
ekosistem dapat dianggap sebagai
energi yang disimpan atau energi
yang dilepaskan.
Energi dapat diubah dari satu bentuk
ke bentuk yang lain tetapi tidak
dapat hilang, dihancurkan atau
diciptakan.
Diunduh dari:
AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Pengertian:
Asas ini adalah sebenarnya serupa dengan hukum Thermo
dinamika I, yang sangat fundamental dalam ILMU fisika.
Asas ini dikenal sebagai hukum konservasi energi dalam
persamaan matematika.
Conservation and Efficiency

Energy conservation and
energy efficiency are presently
the most powerful tools in our
transition to a clean energy
future. As depicted in the
Energy Pyramid, renewable
energy is an important piece of
our energy future, but the
largest opportunities are
currently in energy
conservation and efficiency.
Although the focus of this
website is on renewable
energy, we strongly encourage
communities first evaluate and
implement energy conservation
and efficiency.
Diunduh
dari: http://nwcommunityenergy.org/biogeo/efficiency/
Loughborough
University,
2004

Contoh:
Banyaknya kalori, energi yang terbuang dalam bentuk makanan
diubah oleh jasad hidup menjadi energi untuk tumbuh,
berbiak, menjalankan proses metabolisme, dan yang terbuang
sebagai panas.
Energy & Food chain
Solar energy is converted into chemical energy (in the form of sugar) through the
process of photosynthesis, which is performed by plants and other photosynthetic
organisms (e.g., cyanobacteria). This is why we call plants and other photosynthetic
organisms producers.
So the energy transformation process started from the producer.
Photosynthesis is the conversion

of light energy into chemical
energy by living organisms.
The raw materials are carbon
dioxide and water, the energy
source is sunlight, and the endproducts include glucose and
oxygen.
It is arguably the most important
biochemical pathway, since nearly
all life depends on it. It is a
complex process occurring in
higher plants, phytoplankton,
algae, as well as bacteria such as
cyanobacteria.
From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis
Diunduh dari: http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/home/cxguo/energy&ecosystem_files/main.html

Loughborough
University, 2004
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from
external sources. At the first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some
bacteria) use solar energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis.
Herbivoresanimals that feed solely on plantsmake up the second trophic level.
Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are
present, they represent still higher trophic levels.
Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example, grizzly bears that eat
berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at which they
feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break
down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.
The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally
more important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large
amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form,
which are then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during
decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat (this is what makes compost piles
and fresh garden mulch warm). Figure shows the flow of energy (dark arrows) and
nutrients (light arrows) through ecosystems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.learner.org/courses/envsci/unit/text.php?unit=4&secNum=3

Loughborough
University, 2004
Pyramid of energy
Since, energy will transfer from
the lower level into the higher
level 10 times lesser than the
lower one. This is a fact.
Therefore, the pyramid will never
be inverted. This is the best way
to represent the pyramid of food
chain.
Energy transfer
Energy Flow - is an one-way process in ecosystems - in order to persist, ecosystems require a
constant input of energy.
Before we go on to talk about the biological energy transfer system, we need to know the
basic knowledge of the physical chemical level of energy transfer - thermodynamic ( thermo
= energy, dynamic = movement ) - the study of energy transfer.
First law of thermodynamics:
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but is only transformed.
In any process, the total energy of a closed system remains constant.
You cannot get something from nothing.
Second law of thermodynamics:
Any closed system tends spontaneously toward increasing disorder (disordered energy =
entropy).
In any energy conversion some energy is transferred to the surroundings as heat.
No real process can be 100% efficient.
There can never be a perpetual motion machine.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ust.hk/~webpepa/pepa/lecture_notes/ecosystem/index.htm

Loughborough
University, 2004
The flow and transfer of energy

In ecosystems, the original source of energy is light from the sun.
Only green plants, which contain chlorophyll can trap light energy and convert this to
chemical energy during the process of photosynthesis.
How energy enters an ecosystem

The diagram below shows how energy enters an ecosystem as light which is captured
and converted into the chemical energy of food.
During photosynthesis
the chlorophyll traps
energy from sunlight.
This energy is used to
combine water and
carbon dioxide to produce
glucose and oxygen.
The glucose is used by
the plant to make new
materials and to supply
energy for growth. The
oxygen is released into
the atmosphere.
The captured energy in
plant material becomes
the ultimate source of
food, because animals
either eat plants or other
animals.
Diunduh dari: http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k12lrcd/learning_areas/bio_science/bio1b/content/001_ecosystems/page_04.htm

Loughborough
University, 2004
How energy leaves an ecosystem

Energy, unlike matter, is not recycled and does not remain in an ecosystem.
Some of the energy is used to drive the chemical reactions of the body that
keep the organism alive. For example, during life processes such as
respiration some energy is used, however, most of the energy is converted
into heat which is released.
In this way most of the energy that enters an ecosystem as light leaves the
ecosystem as heat.
A one way flow of energy occurs in all ecosystems as energy is transferred
from one organism to another as shown below.
Light energy > Autotrophs > Heterotrophs > Heat energy
Most of the energy that enters an ecosystem as light leaves the ecosystem
as heat.
Diunduh dari: http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k12lrcd/learning_areas/bio_science/bio1b/content/001_ecosystems/page_04.htm

Loughborough
University, 2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 2:
Tak ada sistem pengubahan energi yang
betul-betul efisien.
Pengertian:
Asas ini tak lain adalah hukum
Thermodinamika II,
Ini berarti energi yang tak pernah
hilang dari alam
raya, tetapi energi tersebut akan terus
diubah
Dalam bentuk yang kurang
bermanfaat.
Diunduh dari:
Energy Movement in Ecosystems: Trophic & Energy

Pyramid
Energy Pyramid
Pyramid of Energy Flow
10% passed on to next level (a lot energy is lost as HEAT or to fuel preys bodily
functions)
At each trophic level, the bulk of the energy received from the previous level is used
in metabolism
This energy is released as heat energy and lost to the ecosystem
Eventually, all energy is released as heat
Numbers and Biomass Pyramids
In a forest ecosystem, the tiny plant-feeding insects in the second trophic level
outnumber the trees in the first trophic level.
However, the biomass of all the trees is much greater than the biomass of herbivores.
Diunduh dari: http://schoolworkhelper.net/2011/01/energy-movement-in-ecosystemstrophic-energy-pyramid/

Energy transfer
Animals cannot make their own food so they have to eat. This is one way in which
energy is transferred between organisms in an ecosystem. The energy is used for a
number of life processes.
In a food chain only around 10 per cent of the energy is passed on to the next level.
The rest of the energy passes out of the food chain in a number of ways:
1. via heat energy
2. is used for life processes (for example movement)
3. uneaten parts that pass to decomposers
4. is excreted and passes to decomposers.
As less energy is transferred at each level of the food chain, the number of organisms
at each level gets smaller.
Percentage efficiency of energy transfer

An example of energy flow through an ecosystem is shown below.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/life_on_earth/species_interdependen
Loughborough University, 2004 cerev4.shtml
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 3
Materi, energi, ruang, waktu, dan
keanekaragaman, termasuk
kategori sumberdaya alam.
Pengertian:
Pengubahan energi oleh sistem biologi
harus berlangsung pada kecepatan
yang sebanding dengan adanya
materi dan energi di lingkungan nya.
Pengaruh ruang secara asas adalah
beranalogi dengan materi dan energi
sebagai sumberdaya alam.

Contoh:
Ruang yang sempit: dpt mengganggu proses pembiakan organisme dg
kepadatan tinggi.
Ruang yang terlalu luas: jarak antar individu dalam populasi semakin jauh,
kesempatan bertemu antara jantan dan betina semakin kecil sehingga
pembiakan akan terganggu.
Jauh dekatnya jarak sumber makanan akan berpengaruh terhadap
perkembangan populasi.
Nature provides us with many resources
All the natural resources and

ecosystems need to work
together as a whole-earth
regeneration system, to produce
the oxygen, fresh water, food,
and proper temperature in the
atmosphere that sustains our
lives.
Diunduh dari:2004
http://www.eco-pros.com/life-sus.htm
Loughborough University,

WAKTU
Waktu sebagai sumber alam tidak merupakan besaran yang berdiri sendiri.
Misal hewan mamalia di padang pasir, pada musim kering tiba
persediaan air habis di lingkungannya, maka harus berpindah ke lokasi
yang ada sumber airnya.
Berhasil atau tidaknya hewan bermigrasi tergantung pada adanya cukup
waktu dan energi untuk menempuh jarak lokasi sumber air.
Richards growth function for cumulative emergence (%) of pedunculate oak seedlings. The
mean is shown for all provenances combined for each of the five experimental treatments (1
untreated control, 2 cutting off the scar of the pericarp and seed testa (DC), 3 cutting
off of 1/5 of the distal end of acorns, 4 cutting off 1/2 of the distal end of acorns, 5
cutting off 2/3 of the distal end of acorns)
Consequences of cutting
off distal ends of
cotyledons of Quercus
robur acorns before
sowing
by Giertych, Marian J.;
Suszka, Jan
Annals of Forest
Science 2011 Vol. 68
Issue 2
dari: http://www.springerimages.com/Images/RSS/1-10.1007_s13595-011-0038-6 Diunduh

Loughborough
University, 2004

BIO-DIVERSITAS
Keanekaragaman juga merupakan sumberdaya alam.
Semakin beragam jenis makanan suatu spesies semakin
kurang bahayanya apabila menghadapi perubahan
lingkungan yang dapat memusnahkan sumber
makanannya.
Relationship between biodiversity, ecological engineering and stakeholders
Communicating
biodiversity and
ecological
engineering to
farmers
M.M. Escalada and
Ho Van Chien
Department of
Development
Communication
Visayas State
University
Diunduh dari: http://ricehoppers.net/2009/11/communicating-biodiversity-and-ecologicalengineering-to-farmers/

Using the right planting density is critical for optimum yield

and revenue for vegetable crops
Posted on June 1, 2011 by Mathieu Ngouajio, Michigan State University
Extension, Department of Horticulture
Using planting density to maximize economic value of the crop: The case of pickling
cucumber
Profitability of pickling cucumber (as is the case for many other crops) is not just a
function of total fruit weight, but is also dependent on seed cost and fruit selling price.
Therefore, seed cost should be included in the analyses of studies designed to identify
optimum pickling cucumber densities. With an arbitrary 5 percent margin of error, a study
conducted under our growing conditions showed that optimum economic value is
obtained with densities between 72,000 and 120,000 plants per acre (Figure ).
Optimum density for highest economic value varies depending on seed cost and
cucumber selling price. The higher the seed cost, the lower the optimum density. Also, the
lower the selling price, the lower the optimum density. Other factors that should be taken
into account include cultivars, growing conditions and timing of harvest.
Economic value of pickling cucumber as affected by planting density.
Diunduh dari:
http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/using_the_right_planting_density_is_critical_for_optimum_yi
eld_and_revenue/
Insights into plant size-density relationships from models and

agricultural crops
Geometric relationships between planting distance, d; canopy radius, r; and plant height, h.
(A) Polar view of equally spaced plants whose canopies (shaded circles) do not intersect
because planting density is low or mature plants are small. (B) At higher densities,
neighboring canopies make contact and compete for resources; at that point, the total number
of plants equals nAnB, the planted area equals 4nAnBr2 (where nA and nB are the numbers of
plants in the orthogonal dimensions of the planted field), and the critical plant density, Ncrit,
equals nAnB/(4nAnBr2) 1/r2. (C) Side view of the canopies (with radii, r) of two neighboring
plants at a fixed distance, d.
As canopies increase in size, their canopies begin to intersect (Center). The intersecting
volume of neighboring canopies, V, equals twice the area of the segment of each circular
intersecting canopy, Aseg, multiplied by height, h. (D) Polar views of neighboring plants show
that the chord between the two intersecting canopies in C is always located at d/2, whereas
the area of the segments defined by the chord is a function of the angle (Right).
Diunduh dari:
http://www.pnas.org/content/109/22/8600/F2.expansion.html
Loughborough
University,
2004
ALLEY CROPPING = PERTANAMAN LORONG

Fast-growing, deep-rooted legume trees such as leucaena ( Leucaena
leucocephala) have been planted in double or single rows in Indonesia and
the Philippines by small-scale farmers on sloping lands to control erosion
(Lungren and Nair 1985). Food crops are then planted in the alleys between
the trees. Periodic pruning is needed to prevent shading of the food crops by
the tree canopy. Once established, the trees facilitate terrace formation within
the alley.
Kang, B.T., G.F. Wilson and T.L. Lawson. 1985. Alley Cropping: an Alternative
to Shifting Cultivation. Special Publication, International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Diunduh dari: http://www.agnet.org/library.php?

func=view&style=&type_id=4&id=20110804181442&print=1
ASAS 4:
Untuk semua kategori
sumberdaya alam, kalau
pengadaannya sudah mencapai
optimum, pengaruh unit
kenaikannya sering menurun
dengan penambahan
sumberdaya alam itu sampai ke
suatu tingkat maksimum.
Melampaui batas maksimum ini
tak akan ada pengaruh yang
menguntungkan lagi.
Diunduh dari:

Untuk semua kategori sumberdaya alam (kecuali keanekaragaman dan waktu)
kenaikan pengadaannya yang melampui batas maksimum, bahkan akan
berpengaruh merusak karena kesan peracunan.
Ini adalah asas penjenuhan.
Untuk banyak gejala sering berlaku kemungkinan penghancuran yang disebabkan oleh
pengadaan sumberdaya alam yang sudah mendekati batas maksimum.
Effect of Technical Change on Fertilizer Use and Yields

Figure shows how this framework can help in understanding likely farmer reactions to
significant changes in the underlying technology available for rice production. The
development of modern fertilizer-responsive seed varieties shifts the entire production
function up, allowing more output to be produced even with the same fertilizer input. But
something else has happened in the shift as well, for even at the same fertilizer-to-rice price
ratio a larger application of fertilizer is now profitable. The optimal point is E" where OK
fertilizer is used to produce OC" rice.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/FRI/indonesia/documents/foodpolicy/chapt3.fm.html
Loughborough
University, 2004

Asas 4 tersebut terkandung arti bahwa pengadaan sumberdaya alam
mempunyai batas optimum, yang berarti pula batas maksimum, maupun
batas minimum . Pengadaan sumberdaya alam akan mengurangi daya
kegiatan sistem biologi.
This is called the Law of Diminishing Returns. The key to success with this
theory is having the ability to identify whether the potential returns justify the
investment (time, money, energy, etc.). If they dont, its your cue to be done and
move on to the next project.
Diunduh dari: http://www.collaboration-llc.com/blog/2012/05/31/is-great-better-than Loughborough

University, 2004

Contoh:
Pada keadaan lingkungan yang sudah stabil, populasi hewan atau
tumbuhannya cenderung naik-turun (bukan naik terus atau turun
terus).
Maksudnya adalah akan terjadi pengintensifan perjuangan hidup, bila
persediaan sumberdaya alam berkurang.
Tetapi sebaliknya, akan terdapat ketenangan kalau sumberdaya alam
bertambah.
POPULATION ECOLOGY
Factors Influencing Population Growth
Nearly all populations will tend to grow exponentially as long as there are resources
available. Most populations have the potential to expand at an exponential rate, since
reproduction is generally a multiplicative process. Two of the most basic factors that affect
the rate of population growth are the birth rate, and the death rate. The intrinsic rate of
increase is the birth rate minus the death rate.
Diunduh dari: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookpopecol.html

Loughborough
University, 2004
Ecosystem energy, nutrient and food pathways

Notice the directional arrows and
pathways. You should understand the
sequences of Energy and Biotic and
Abiotic components.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
What are Abiotic components?

What are Biotic components?
What is the fundamental energy
source?
How does this energy source vary at
different locations around Earth?
Where are Plants in the flow of
energy and materials?
Why are plants called the Producers,
or for more emphasis, the Primary
Producers?
What is meant by Consumers?
What are Herbivores?
What are Carnivores?
What are the sources of Energy and
Materials for the preceding?
Where do Humans fit in?
What are the implications for energy
and space efficiencies?
Biomass Pyramids: Efficiency of
herbivores vs. carnivores (Fig 16-14)
What are Decomposers; what is their
"role"?
Why can they be called Recyclers?
Diunduh dari: http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/scripter/geog100/lect/16-ecosystemsbiomes/ecosystems-files/ecosystems.htm

2004
Ecosystem Physiology:
The Plant-Microbe Dance
Leslie H. Kirkegaard
Orchid Ecosystem Outgrowth

The outgrowth of the ecosystem in an orchid pot illustrates how microbes and plant engage each
other over time. It also shows how Hyper-Growth culture differs from conventional culture. Figure
depicts the basic steps in the outgrowth of an ecosystem.
Orchids are potted in a clean bark mixture. Organic materials in the potting mix serve as a potential
source of energy for ecosystem microbes. Upon the addition of water-containing, mineral nutrients,
ecosystem microbes begin the race to exploit available energy foods. In the Figure, this is labeled the
Awakening Phase.
For any number of reasons a single, aggressive microbe-type will eventually emerge as the
predominant player. As such, it basically defines the soil environment. This state, labeled in toxic
red is called the Mono-microbe ecosystem. For most orchids, this condition is unhealthy, and
frequently deadly. Conventional orchid growers avoid this condition by frequent re-potting.
Over time as the primary food source becomes depleted, additional microbe-types will establish
themselves and begin to create a more balanced ecosystem. The conclusion of this Maturing Phase
leads to a dynamically balanced, Poly-microbe Ecosystem.
Diunduh dari: http://grow-orchid-grow.com/Science_Corner/Ecosystem_Physiology_2_The_Plant Loughborough University, 2004

Microbe_Dance.html
Biological modifiers of marine benthic seascapes: Their role

as ecosystem engineers
Peter S. Meadows, Azra Meadows , John M.H. Murray
Geomorphology. Volumes 157158, 1 July 2012, Pages 3148
Benthic organisms in marine ecosystems modify the environment on different spatial
and temporal scales. These modifications, many of which are initially at a microscale,
are likely to have large scale effects on benthic seascapes. This is especially so if the
species are ecosystem engineers.
Most species of infaunal and epifaunal invertebrates and macrophytes contribute at a
geophysical or geochemical level. Microorganisms also play a key but currently
neglected role. In the intertidal and immediately sublittoral zone, algae and
seagrasses, and mussels in mussel beds have received considerable attention. A
substantial fossil record also exists. Mathematical modelling of these systems is still
in its infancy, although several sophisticated mathematical tools have been applied.
The effects of bioturbation

and of microorganisms have
been less studied, and little
is known about the
activities of benthic
organisms in the deep sea.
This paper addresses all
these effects, and places
them in the context of large
scale benthic seascapes and
of the extensive literature
on species defined as
ecosystem engineers in the
sea.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X11003527

Loughborough
University, 2004
ASAS 5:
Ada dua jenis sumberdaya alam
dasar, yaitu sumberdaya alam
yang pengadaannya dapat
merangsang penggunaan
seterusnya, dan yang tidak
mempunyai daya rangsang
penggunaan lebih lanjut.

Contoh:
Suatu jenis hewan sedang mencari berbagai sumber makanan. Kemudian
didapatkan suatu jenis tanaman yang melimpah di alam, maka hewan
tersebut akan memusatkan perhatiannya kepada penggunaan jenis
makanan tersebut.
Dengan demikian, kenaikan sumberdaya alam (makanan) merangsang
kenaikan pendayagunaan.
The food web diagram shows the names of river-based organisms with arrows that
depict the flow of food from one kind of organism to another. It addresses the parts of
the key idea that all land-based and aquatic organisms are interconnected by their need
for food, that this network of interconnections is called a food web, and that food webs
can be described for a particular environment.
Diunduh
dari: http://prisms.mmsa.org/review.php?rid=1048
Loughborough
University,
2004
Plant-Fungal Symbioses
Mycorrhizas are the most important type of symbiotic plant-fungus associations, but
there are a wide diversity of other associations between plants and fungi. The
relationship between mycorrhizas and other types of plant-fungus associations, such
as parasitic or endophytic associations, are also shown below.
This diagram compares types of plant-fungus interactions and each is explained

separately below (after Brundrett 2004).
Mutualistic associations occupy the mutual benefit (+ +) quadrant in diagrams contrasting
the relative benefits (+) or harm (-) to two interacting organisms (Boucher 1985, Lewis
1985). This is a phase plane diagram that describes biological interactions according to a
cost-benefit model, where mutualism is an isocline showing both partners are more
successful together than they are alone (Boucher 1985, Lewis 1985, Tuomi et al. 2001).
Diunduh2004
dari: http://mycorrhizas.info/
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 6:
Individu dan spesies yang
mempunyai lebih banyak
keturunan daripada saingannya,
cenderung berhasil
mengalahkan saingannya.
Diunduh dari:

Pengertian:
Asas ini adalah pernyataan teori Darwin dan Wallace.
Pada jasad hidup terdapat perbedaan sifat keturunan dalam hal tingkat adaptasi
terhadap faktor lingkungan fisik atau biologi. Kemudian timbul kenaikan
kepadatan populasinya sehingga timbul persaingan.
Jasad hidup yang kurang mampu beradaptasi akan kalah dalam persaingan. Dapat
diartikan pula bahwa jasad hidup yang adaptif akan mampu menghasilkan
banyak keturunan daripada yang non-adaptif.
. The sigmoid graph showing the population growth of a species has three phases which are; the exponential
phase, the transitional phase and the plateau phase. At the start of the sigmoid curve we can see the
exponential phase. This is where there is a rapid increase in population growth as natality rate exceeds
mortality rate. The reason for this is because there are abundant resources available such as food for all
members of the population and diseases as well as predators are rare. As time passes, the population reaches
the transitional phase. This is where the natality rate starts to fall and/or the mortality rate starts to rise. It is
the result of a decrease in the abundance of resources, and an increase in the number of predators and
diseases. However, even though population growth has decreased compared to the exponential phase, it is
still increasing as natality rate still exceeds mortality rate. Finally, the population reaches the plateau phase.
Here, the population size is constant so no more growth is occurring.
This is the result of natality rate
being equal to mortality rate and
is caused by resources becoming
scarce as well as an increase in
predators, diseases and parasites.
These are the limiting factors to
the population growth. If natality
rate starts to drop then mortality
rate will drop too as more
resources become available. As
natality rate starts to increase
again so does mortality rate as
resources become scarce. This
keeps the population number
relatively stable. If a population
is limited by a shortage of
resources then we say that it has
reached the carrying capacity of
the environment.
Diunduh
dari: http://www.ibguides.com/biology/notes/populations
Loughborough
University,
2004
Factors Governing Populations at Max and Min

Each of the major factors that regulate populations act differently with regards to
how it exerts control over a population.
For example, biotic factors interacting within a population (i.e., intra-specific
competition) work together to maintain populations below the "carrying capacity".
When populations become too large, the individuals of the same species begin to
compete for the same resources such as food, shelter, egg-laying sites, etc. This
interaction between members of the same species tends to be the most important
factor maintaining population levels below the "carrying capacity".
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pmis/Biocontrol/ConceptsMain.aspx
Loughborough
2004
Factors Governing Populations Below Carrying Capacity

Biological control agents (parasites, pathogens, and predators) as well as competition
between species with similar environmental requirements (i.e., interspecific
competition) act together to regulate populations below the carrying capacity.
While other factors, most notably abiotic factors, may influence these fluctuations,
biological factors seem to be the most important.
The importance of biotic factors is their influence on the fluctuations of population
size above or below the characteristic population size.
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pmis/Biocontrol/ConceptsMain.aspx
Loughborough
2004
A WHOLE SYSTEM APPROACH: dinamika adaptasi

The main types of responses to climate change identified in the previous section
illuminate the cross-scale processes, providing an insight into the adaptation
dynamics.
The interplay between adaptation strategies at different levels contributes to the
resilience of the whole system through (i) the links between natural and cultivated
landscapes; (ii) the supportive role of agriculture in the protection and restoration of
ecosystems; and (iii) the maintenance of species and genetic diversity.
Intra- and inter-species diversity

Intra- and inter-species diversity is protected, used and redistributed to strengthen the
resilience of agricultural systems and maintain production in stress-prone
environments. The main adaptation measures are:
1. Use of stress-tolerant and fast-maturing crop species and varieties; and stresstolerant species and breeds of cattle.
2. Protection, reintroduction and distribution of traditional crops through
community seed banks and on-farm conservation.
3. Stress tolerance improvement through farmers selection and participatory plant
breeding.
Diunduh dari: http://satoyama-initiative.org/en/case_studies-2/group_agriculture-2/the-use-of Loughborough

agrobiodiversity-by-indigenous-and-traditional-agricultural-communities-in-adapting-to-climate-change/
University, 2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 7 :
Kemantapan keaneka-ragaman
suatu komunitas lebih tinggi
pada kondisi alamiah yang
mudah diramal.
Diunduh dari:

Pengertian
Mudah diramal : adanya keteraturan yang pasti pada diramal
pola faktor lingkungan pada suatu periode yang relatif lama. Terdapat fluktuasi
kondisi lingkungan di semua habitat, tetapi mudah dan sukarnya untuk
diramal berbeda dari satu habitat ke habitat lain.
Dengan mengetahui keadaan optimum pada faktor lingkungan bagi kehidupan
suatu spesies , maka perlu diketahui berapa lama keadaan tersebut dapat
bertahan.
Change from one stability domain to another when fishing is too close to the boundary
between stability domains in a fisheries ecosystem with natural climatic fluctuations
Diunduh dari:
http://www.gerrymarten.com/human-ecology/chapter10.html
Loughborough
University,
2004
Ecosystem Stability and succession
Limiting Factors :
1. Low temperatures
2. High temperatures
3. Length of growing season
4. Lack of water
5. Excess surface/soil water
Diunduh dari: http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/scripter/geog100/lect/16-ecosystemsbiomes/ecosystems-files/ecosystems.htm

2004
ASAS 8 :
Sebuah habitat dapat jenuh atau tidak oleh
keanekaragaman takson, bergantung
kepada bagaimana niche dalam
lingkungan hidup itu dapat memisahkan
takson tersebut.
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
Pengertian:
Kelompok taksonomi tertentu dari
suatu jasad hidup ditandai oleh
keadaan lingkungannya yang khas
(niche), tiap spesies mempunyai niche
tertentu. Spesies dapat hidup
berdampingan dengan spesies lain
tanpa persaiangan, karena masingmasing mempunyai keperluan dan
fungsi yang berbeda di alam.
Diunduh dari:
Energy Transfer
The idea of the transfer of energy allows us to consider the efficiency with which
light energy is transferred to energy in producers, as well as the efficiency with which
energy in the producers is then transferred from trophic level to trophic level.
The diagram shows the percentage of energy transferred to each trophic level in the
ecosystem. We can look at this another way. For every 10 000 kJ of energy absorbed
by the producer, 100 kJ are incorporated into its tissues, 10 kJ will eventually be
incorporated into the tissues of primary consumers, and 1 kJ into the tissues of
secondary consumers. The rest will be lost as heat. This is the basic pattern of energy
transfer, but there are a number of points that are worth making about each stage.
These points are often required in order to answer questions which involve the
interpretation of information.
The efficiency with which energy is transferred within an ecosystem
Transfer of sunlight energy to energy in plant tissues
Not all the light energy falling on a plant is used to
make new tissues: values have been rounded
1. Some is of the wrong wavelength for
photosynthesis.
2. Some fails to strike a chlorophyll molecule.
3. Some will be reflected from the plant surface.
4. Other factors such as soil nutrients or carbon
dioxide concentration may be in short supply.
This will limit the rate of formation of new
tissue.
5. Crop plants often convert a higher percentage of
the light energy which falls on them into energy
in new tissue than plants growing in the wild do.
This is because:
6. Crops are often irrigated and supplied with
fertiliser. Shortage of water and mineral ions
does not limit growth.
7. Crop plants have been bred for high productivity.
They therefore have genes which ensure that they
are efficient at converting light energy into
energy in plant tissue.
8. Crops are often treated with pesticides. As a
result, there is little damage to their leaves and
they can photosynthesise more efficiently.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.dr-evans.com/advancedbiology/energy_transfer.html
Loughborough
University,
2004
Interspecific Competition
Amitabh Joshi,
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
Published online: May 2001
Interspecific competition is the mutual inhibition of growth rate among populations
of different species that have common requirements for shared and limiting
resources. Interspecific competition can be a potent force in adaptive evolution and,
along with predation and herbivory, is a major factor shaping the structure and
species diversity of biological communities.
Zero growth isoclines for competing species 1 (solid line) and 2 (dotted line) in the
LotkaVolterra model, plotted in a space defined by population numbers of the two
species, N1 and N2. If N1 and N2 are such that the system lies to the right of both
isoclines, then both N1 and N2 will tend to decrease (shown by thin solid and dotted
arrows), resulting in the system moving in a direction indicated by the thick arrows.
If the system lies to the left of both isoclines, then both N 1 and N2 will tend to
increase. If the system is to the right of the isocline for species 2, but to the left of the
species 1 isocline, then N1 will increase, whereas N2 will decrease. The two isoclines
in this example thus divide the relevant system space into three sections with
different predicted trajectories.
Diunduh dari:http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0003286.html
Loughborough
University, 2004
INTERPLANTING OR INTERCROPPING
There is not a lot known about how planting density affects different crops and crop
mixes. It has been found, for example, that closely planted apple trees with overlapping
root areas produce many more downward growing roots in contrast to widely spaced
trees which produce more horizontal roots.10 How much some crops can adapt their
physical structure to different planting densities and which crops can do this is not
really known. Each gardener must experiment with planting densities and combinations
that work for them.
Annual leaf or fruit crops can often be successfully interplanted with root crops
Mixed planting in a household garden may take many forms. It can be a combination of
various trees and plants. It can be fruit trees surrounded by squash vines or garden beds
containing alternating rows of different crops. However it is organized, the goal in a
mixed garden is a greater average harvest of diverse garden produce for the least
amount of labor and resources.
Diunduh dari: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0fnl2.2--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10--4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-800&cl=CL3.6&d=HASH0150ba4e9f73176fac50b5ae.7&gt=2

2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 9 :
Keanekaragaman komunitas sebanding
dengan biomassa dibagi
produktivitas.
T = K x (B/P) ; D T
T = waktu rata-rata penggunaan energi
K = koefisien tetapan
B = biomassa
P = produktivitas
D = keanekaragaman
Diunduh dari:

Pengertian:
Asas ini mengandung arti, bahwa efisiensi penggunaan aliran energi
dalam sistem biologi akan meningkat dengan meningkatnya
kompleksitas organisasi sistem biologi dalam suatu komunitas.
Services provided by intercropping
Genetic diversity
physical barrier to fungal spread
complexity & competition of pathogens
Induced resistance
> rice blast 94% less severe no fungicides used
> 89% greater yield
LER: 1.18 ha monoculture for 1 ha mixture
Diunduh dari:
2004http://cropscience.ch/?p=13
Effects of Intercropping Systems on Environment

Intercropping
cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same
time form of polyculture using companion planting
principles
Agroforestry
land use systems in which woody perennials are integrated with crops
(Gliessman 2007)
Increase in biodiversity
Soil fertility improvement
Socioeconomic effects
Diunduh dari:
2004http://cropscience.ch/?p=13
ECOSYSTEM Structure
The description of the fishers' interaction within the ecosystem requires identification of four
main ecosystem compartments: (1) a biotic compartment, including target fish resources,
associated and dependent species and the living habitat (seagrass, algal beds, corals); (2) an
abiotic compartment, characterized by its topography, bottom types, water quality and local
weather/climate; (3) a fishery compartment, in which harvesting and processing activities
take place, with a strong technological character, and (4) an institutional compartment,
comprising laws, regulations and organizations needed for fisheries governance. Humans are
part of the biotic component of the ecosystem from which they draw resources, food,
services and livelihood as well as part of the fishery component which they drive. These
components interact and are affected by: (i) non-fishing activities; (ii) the global climate;
(iii) other ecosystems, usually adjacent, with which they exchange matter and information;
and (iv) the socio-economic environment as reflected in the market, relevant policies and
societal values. A simplified diagram of the interactions involved in an exploited ecosystem
is given in Figure below.
DiunduhUniversity,
dari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y4773E/y4773e04.htm
Loughborough
2004
Phytoplankton Community Structure as an Indicator of Coastal

Ecosystem Health
Paerl, Han , Luettich Jr., Richard A. , Noble, Rachel T. , Pinckney, James L.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , University of South Carolina at Columbia
March 1, 2003 through February 28, 2004
Using Phytoplankton Photopigments To Assess Estuarine Ecological

Condition and Change
Roles of Diagnostic Photopigments as Indicators of Ecosystem Productivity and
Plant Community Composition in Response to Physical-Chemical Stressors in
Estuarine and Coastal Waters
Diunduh dari:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract/612
Loughborough University, 20047/report/2004/
ASAS 10 :
Pada lingkungan yang stabil
perbandingan antara biomasa
dengan produktivitas (B/P) dalam
perjalanan waktu naik mencapai
sebuah asimtot.

Pengertian:
Sistem biologi menjalani evolusi yang mengarah kepada
peningkatan efisiensi penggunaan energi dalam
lingkungan fisik yang stabil, dan memungkinkan
berkembangnya keanekaragaman.
Energy Efficiency and Ecological Sustainability in Conventional and
Integrated Potato Production System
M.R. Haj Seyed Hadi (Iran)
Sustainable development in potato production is an issue of growing concern.
An energy flow analysis is proposed for providing parameters for estimating
ecological sustainability. Calculations include energy output (contents of energy
in potato tuber) and energy inputs (consumption of fertilizers, pesticides, labor,
machines, fuel and electricity). The ratio of output of the production to inputs is
called the energy outputs / inputs ratio or energy efficiency. One way to
quantify essential parts of agricultural development is the energy flow method.
The output / input energy ratio is proposed as the most comprehensive single
factor in pursuing the objective of sustainability.
Potato is one of the most important field crops in Iran and has effective role to
supply foods for growing population. The objective of this investigation was to
find out energy flow in potato field and for this reason, 6 main potato
production area of Iran were selected. These provinces were: Firoozkouh,
Khorasan, Ardabil and Hamadan. Results of this study showed that in one
hectare of potato average energy inputs was 18747183.2 Kcal. Mean potato
yield was about 25817 kg / ha and by its energetic values, the total output
energy calculated 18510789 Kcal. According to these information, the energy
output / input ratio was 0.98.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.actapress.com/Abstract.aspx?paperId=23135
Loughborough
University,
2004
Crop yield and light/energy efficiency in a closed ecological system:

Laboratory Biosphere experiments with wheat and sweet potato.
Nelson M, Dempster WF, Silverstone S, Alling A, Allen JP, van Thillo M
Advances in Space Research : the Official Journal of the Committee on Space Research
(COSPAR) [2005, 35(9):1539-1543]
Two crop growth experiments in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory
Biosphere, were conducted from 2003 to 2004 with candidate space life support
crops. Apogee wheat (Utah State University variety) was grown, planted at two
densities, 400 and 800 seeds m-2. The lighting regime for the wheat crop was 16 h of
light-8 h dark at a total light intensity of around 840 micromoles m-2 s-1 and 48.4
mol m-2 d-1 over 84 days. Average biomass was 1395 g m-2, 16.0 g m-2 d-1 and
average seed production was 689 g m-2 and 7.9 g m-2 d-1. The less densely planted
side was more productive than the denser planting, with 1634 g m-2 and 18.8 g m-2
d-1 of biomass vs. 1156 g m-2 and 13.3 g m-2 d-1; and a seed harvest of 812.3 g m-2
and 9.3 g m-2 d-1 vs. 566.5 g m-2 and 6.5 g m-2 d-1. Harvest index was 0.49 for the
wheat crop.
The experiment with sweet potato used TU-82-155 a compact variety developed at
Tuskegee University. Light during the sweet potato experiment, on a 18 h on/6 h dark
cycle, totaled 5568 total moles of light per square meter in 126 days for the sweet
potatoes, or an average of 44.2 mol m-2 d-1. Temperature regime was 28 +/- 3
degrees C day/22 +/- 4 degrees C night. Sweet potato tuber yield was 39.7 kg wet
weight, or an average of 7.4 kg m-2, and 7.7 kg dry weight of tubers since dry weight
was about 18.6% wet weight. Average per day production was 58.7 g m-2 d-1 wet
weight and 11.3 g m-2 d-1. For the wheat, average light efficiency was 0.34 g
biomass per mole, and 0.17 g seed per mole. The best area of wheat had an efficiency
of light utilization of 0.51 g biomass per mole and 0.22 g seed per mole. For the
sweet potato crop, light efficiency per tuber wet weight was 1.33 g mol-1 and 0.34 g
dry weight of tuber per mole of light.
The best area of tuber production had 1.77 g mol-1 wet weight and 0.34 g mol-1 of
light dry weight. The Laboratory Biosphere experiment's light efficiency was
somewhat higher than the USU field results but somewhat below greenhouse trials at
comparable light levels, and the best portion of the crop at 0.22 g mol-1 was inbetween those values. Sweet potato production was overall close to 50% higher than
trials using hydroponic methods with TU-82-155 at NASA JSC. Compared to
projected yields for the Mars on Earth life support system, these wheat yields were
about 15% higher, and the sweet potato yields averaged over 80% higher.
Diunduh dari: 2004
http://ukpmc.ac.uk/abstract/MED/16175676
Energy efficiency of grassland animal production in northwest China.

Jin, Y. S.; Xiong, Y. Q.; Ervin, R. T.
Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment (Netherlands) 1990 Vol. 31 No. 1 pp. 63-76
The current livestock grazing status of the Xinjiang grassland

ecosystem in northwest China is described with respect to low
energy conversion of solar to forage energy, waste of energy from
the conversion of forage to animal product energy, and low
commercial energy input into the grassland ecosystem.
Three approaches which may improve the energy efficiency of the
Xinjiang ecosystem are suggested: (1) properly reducing stocking
rate and adjusting herd structure; (2) following (1) and fattening
50% of the animals before marketing; and (3) following (1) and
fattening 100% of the animals before marketing.
A benefit-cost analysis is developed for these approaches. All
benefit-cost ratios are greater than one, indicating that the returns
of the suggested approaches are greater than their costs.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19896771999.html;jsessionid=D4ADEA80E710BB3C230CBF8E766EA9
01
THE LIMITING FACTOR CONCEPT.

In order to not over- or under-supply crops with nutrients from manure and
fertilizer, it's important to determine the crop's need for nutrients. Consider a
broader case, including and beyond P for a minute. A crop has many basic
needs. The factor that is in shortest supply, relative to crop needs, will limit
the yield of the crop, leaving the other factors in excess. This is known as the
Limiting Factor Concept.
The Limiting Factor Concept can be illustrated by a barrel of water. The
staves represent key factors for crop growth. The shortest stave height limits
how much water the barrel can hold (i.e. crop yield).
An illustration of the principle of limiting factors. The level of water in the barrels
above represents the level of crop production. (a) Nitrogen is represented as being the
factor that is most limiting. Even though the other elements are present in more
adequate amounts, crop production can be no higher than that allowed by the nitrogen.
(b) When nitrogen is added, the level of crop production is raised until it is controlled
by the next most limiting factor, in this case, potassium. (After N. C. Brady, The Nature
and Properties of Soils, 9th ed., Macmillan, 1984)
Diunduh dari: https://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/Courses/css412/mod3/ext_m3_pg3.htm

Loughborough
University, 2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 11 :
Sistem yang sudah mantap
(dewasa) akan
mengekploitasi yang belum
mantap (belum dewasa).
Diunduh dari:

Pengertian:
Ekosistem, populasi atau tingkat makanan yang sudah dewasa memindahkan
energi, biomasa, dan keanekaragaman dari tingkat organisasi yang belum
dewasa.
Dengan kata lain, energi, materi, dan keanekaragaman mengalir melalui suatu
kisaran yang menuju ke arah organisasi yang lebih kompleks. (Dari
subsistem yang rendah keanekara-gamannya ke subsistem yang tinggi
keanekaragamannya).
Energy Flow Through Food Chains

Food Chains
The source of all food is the activity of
autotrophs, mainly photosynthesis by
plants. They are called producers
because only they can manufacture food
from inorganic raw materials.
This food feeds herbivores, called
primary consumers.
Carnivores that feed on herbivores are
called secondary consumers.
Carnivores that feed on other carnivores
are tertiary (or higher) consumers.
Such a path of food consumption is
called a food chain.
Each level of consumption in a food
chain is called a trophic level.
Diunduh dari: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/F/FoodChains.html

Loughborough
University, 2004
Energy Flow in Natural Ecosystems

An ecosystem is a functional unit of the environment, which comprises the interaction of all organisms
and physical components within a given geographical area. It consists of two components, biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living).
Biotic ecosystems are composed of organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) each of which is
considered to be either a producer or a consumer of food or energy. Plants are producers and animals
are consumers.
1.
2.
3.
4.
There are four classes of consumers:

Herbivore - eats only plants
Carnivore - eats only animals
Omnivore - eats both plants and animals
Detritus feeders - bacteria, fungi, worms, termites, and maggots.
Each group of organisms along an energy pathway occupies a trophic or feeding

level. All green plants (primary producers) belong to the first trophic level.
Herbivores compose the second trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores make
up the third trophic level. Carnivores that consume other carnivores comprise the
fourth trophic level. The above energy flow illustrates a grazing food web.
dari: http://hairstyle-model-artis.blogspot.com/2011/03/tropical-rainforest-food-chain-diagram.html
Diunduh
Loughborough
University, 2004
Characterization of a carbohydrate transporter from symbiotic

glomeromycotan fungi
Arthur Schler, Holger Martin, David Cohen, Michael Fitz and Daniel Wipf
Nature 444, 933-936(14 December 2006)
Despite inverted relative dimensions of macro- and microsymbiont the interface and
nutrient exchange in the G. pyriformis symbiosis correspond to that in the arbuscular
mycorrhiza. Several arbuscular mycorrhiza-specific phosphate transporters (PT) are
known from plants.
The hypothetical role of GpMST1, and its orthologues, in the sugar uptake through
the symbiotic membrane of glomeromycotan fungi is indicated together with the
substrates of GpMST1 (fructose and putatively xylose are transported weakly).
Diunduh dari:
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7121/fig_tab/nature05364_F1.html
Loughborough
University, 2004
Interspecific competition in phytophagous insects

The relative importance of interspecific competition is a highly controversial and
unresolved issue for community ecology, in general, and for phytophagous insects in
particular. Traditionally, two mechanistic forms of competition are cited in ecology, (1)
exploitative, and (2) interference.
Recent advancements, however, in our understanding of indirect interactions via plants
(induced resistance) and natural enemies (apparent competition) challenge the historical
paradigm of competition:
Indirect herbivore interactions via plants and enemies are likely to underlie much
of the discrepancy between theory and pattern. Until recently most ecology texts
emphasized interference and exploitative interactions as the two mechanisms
driving competition. My dataset provides weak support for the overall prevalence
of these two mechanisms occurring in insect communities. Alternatively, indirect
interactions provide the vast majority of evidence for interspecific herbivore
interactions (>65% of all observations in the dataset), particularly those involving
plants.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.entm.purdue.edu/ecolab/competition.php
Loughborough
University,
2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 12 :
Kesempurnaan adaptasi suatu
sifat atau tabiat bergantung
pada kepentingan relatifnya
dalam keadaan suatu
lingkungan.
Diunduh dari:

Pengertian:
Populasi dalam ekosistem yang belum mantap, kurang bereaksi
terhadap perubahan lingkungan fisiko kimia dibandingkan dengan
populasi dalam ekosistem yang sudah mantap.
Populasi dalam lingkungan dengan kemantapan fisiko kimia yang cukup
lama, tak perlu berevolusi untuk meningkatkan kemampuannya
beradaptasi dengan keadaan yang tidak stabil.
Environments and populations
A jack rabbit would need to lose at least four per cent of its body mass per hour to
thermoregulate by evaporation. There is little or no free water around; water is
obtained from the diet, green plants, including cacti in the summer. Knut SchmidtNielsen's work (1967) showed that behaviour is important for the jack rabbit's
survival. During the hottest part of the day the animal chooses a shaded depression in
the ground, often in the lee of a bush, in which it crouches
The desert jack rabbit in a shaded depression showing a behavioural adaptation to cope with
the severe environment
Based on Folk, G.E. (1974) Textbook of Environmental Physiology (2nd edn), Lea and Febiger
Diunduh dari:http://open.jorum.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/947/Items/S324_1_section5.html
Loughborough
University, 2004
. The ecological effect of phenotypic plasticity Analyzing complex

interaction networks (COIN) with agent-based models
H. Reuter, F. Jopp, F. Hlker, C. Eschenbach, U. Middelhoff, B. Breckling
Ecological Informatics. Volume 3, Issue 1, 1 January 2008, Pages 3545
. Analyzing complex dynamics of ecological systems is complicated by two important

facts: First, phenotypic plasticity allows individual organisms to adapt their reaction
norms in terms of morphology, anatomy, physiology and behavior to changing local
environmental conditions and trophic relationships. Secondly, individual reactions and
ecological dynamics are often determined by indirect interactions through reaction
chains and networks involving feedback processes.
We present an agent-based modeling framework which allows to represent and analyze
ecological systems that include phenotypic changes in individual performances and
indirect interactions within heterogeneous and temporal changing environments. We
denote this structure of interacting components as COmplex Interaction Network
(COIN).
Three examples illustrate the potential of the system to analyze complex ecological
processes that incorporate changing phenotypes on the individual level:
1.
2.
3.
A model on fish population dynamics of roach (Rutilus rutilus) leads to a

differentiation in fish length resulting in a conspicuous distribution that influences
reproduction capability and thus indirectly the fitness.
Modeling the reproduction phase of the passerine bird Erithacus rubecula
(European Robin) illustrates variation in the behavior of higher organisms in
dependence of environmental factors. Changes in reproduction success and in the
proportion of different activities are the results.
The morphological reaction of plants to changes in fundamental environmental
parameters is illustrated by the black alder (Alnus glutinosa) model. Specification
of physiological processes and the interaction structure on the level of modules
allow to represent the reaction to changes in irradiance and temperature accurately.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574954107000143
Loughborough
University, 2004
Herb Plant Structures and Adaptations

A plant is a collection of different internal (inside) and external (outside)
structures that help it to survive and reproduce. Heritable structures or
behaviors that help an organism to survive and reproduce are classified as
adaptations. Not all structures or behaviors are adaptations, and if an
organism is moved into a new environment or the environment changes, a
structure or behavior might no longer be adaptive.
Diunduh dari:
http://m7science.wikispaces.com/HerbGarden_Adaptations
Loughborough
University,
2004
Strategies of adaptation to excess water stresses in the form

of submergence or waterlogging in rice plants.
Rice can adapt to submergence by internal aeration and growth control. For internal
aeration, rice develops longitudinally forming aerenchyma and leaf gas films. On the
other hand, some rice cultivars can survive under submergence by using special
strategies of growth control: a quiescence strategy or an escape strategy. The
Submergence-1A (SUB1A) gene is responsible for the quiescence strategy, which is
important for survival under flash-flood conditions.
The SNORKEL1 (SK1) and SNORKEL2 (SK2) genes are responsible for the escape
strategy, which is important for survival under deepwater-flood conditions. Rice can
adapt to soil waterlogging by forming aerenchyma and a barrier to radial O 2 loss
(ROL) in the roots.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.thericejournal.com/content/5/1/2/figure/F1
Loughborough
University,
2004
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 13 :
Lingkungan yang secara fisik
mantap memungkinkan
terjadinya penimbunan
keanekaragaman biologi dalam
ekosistem yang mantap, yang
kemudian dapat menggalakkan
kemantapan populasi lebih jauh
lagi.
Diunduh dari:
Aquatic Habitat and Buffers

Riparian corridors or buffers influence habitat quality for aquatic species in
several ways:
Provide woody debris for in-stream habitat structure
Maintain in-stream microclimate
Provide food for in-stream species
Protect water quality
Riparian buffers may not be able to maintain desirable aquatic habitat
quality in watersheds that are highly developed. Other land use
management strategies will need to be used as well.
Diunduh dari:
http://nac.unl.edu/bufferguidelines/guidelines/2_biodiversity/11.html
Loughborough
University, 2004
Distribution-abundance Relationship
Species that are restricted in their geographic distribution tend to be scarce whereas
widespread species are likely to occur at high densities. This positive interspecific
distribution-abundance relationship (Figure A) is intimately related to the patterns in
species abundance discussed earlier. This relationship may seem self-evident: Surely
there is a positive link between measures of a species' success on a local scale (its
density) and on a regional scale (its geographic distribution). Yet although a larger
area is more likely to be able to sustain a higher total number of individuals of a
species, it is not clear why the density (number of individuals in a given area) should
also increase.
The interspecific distribution-abundance relationship

(A) Generally, a positive relationship results when plotting measures of abundance
against measures of distribution for different species from a species group. (B) The same
data, with species subdivided into habitat specialists (red) and habitat generalists (green),
showing that habitat specialists may be more abundant relatively (i.e., for a given
distribution). A logit transformation is given by logit (X) = log ( X/1-XM).
2011 Nature Education Data from Verberk, W. C. E. P. et al. (2010) All rights reserved.
Diunduh dari: http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/explaining-generalpatterns-in-species-abundance-and-23162842

2004
INTERSPECIFIC DISTRIBUTION-ABUNDANCE
RELATIONSHIPS
There are two broad classes of ecologically based explanations for interspecific
distribution-abundance relationships. The first class postulates the existence of a
positive feedback between local abundance and the regional distribution of a species
(Figure A). Species that occur in large numbers across many localities will be more
likely to maintain their wide distributions and high abundance. Larger populations
produce more offspring, which increases the chances that the species will reach other
localities (higher colonization) and expand its geographic range. Similarly, being
widespread will ensure the continuous arrival of individuals to all places and thus a
species will be less likely to disappear from a particular locality (lower local
extinction). A consequence of this positive feedback is that there is a dichotomy:
Species will either be widespread and abundant (so called core species) or they will be
restricted and scarce (so called satellite species).
Diunduh dari: http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/explaining-general-patterns-in-species Loughborough University, 2004

abundance-and-23162842
AZAS DASAR ILMU

LINGKUNGAN
ASAS 14 :
Derajat pola keteraturan naikturunnya populasi tergantung
pada jumlah keturunan dalam
sejarah populasi sebelumnya
yang nanti akan mempengaruhi
populasi itu.
Diunduh dari:

Ciri-Ciri Lingkungan/ Komunitasyang Mantap:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jumlah jalur energi yang masuk melalui ekosistem meningkat (banyak)

Lingkungan fisik mantap (mudahdiramal)
Sistem kontrol umpan balik (feedback) komunitas sangat kompleks
Efisiensi penggunaan energi
Tingkat keanekaragaman tinggi
Energy Flow Through the Ecosystem

The diagram above shows how both energy and inorganic nutrients flow through the
ecosystem. We need to define some terminology first. Energy "flows" through the
ecosystem in the form of carbon-carbon bonds. When respiration occurs, the carboncarbon bonds are broken and the carbon is combined with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide. This process releases the energy, which is either used by the organism (to
move its muscles, digest food, excrete wastes, think, etc.) or the energy may be lost as
heat. The dark arrows represent the movement of this energy. Note that all energy
comes from the sun, and that the ultimate fate of all energy in ecosystems is to be lost
as heat. Energy does not recycle!!
Diunduh University,
dari: http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecosystem.html
Loughborough
2004
PRINCIPLES OF ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION AND

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS
A. Energy Source
1.
2.
The ultimate source of energy on our planet: the sun.

The first basic principle of ecosystem sustainability: "For sustainability,
ecosystems use sunlight as their source of energy.
Our planet is sustainable as long as the sun exists. Ecosystems do not use
energy at a faster rate than that available from the sun. (The same cannot be
said for humans because of our rate of fossil fuel consumption.)
This figure shows energy flow through Trophic Levels in a Grazing Food Web. Each
trophic level is represented as biomass boxes and the pathways taken by the energy
flow are indicated with arrows.
Diunduh
dari: http://apesnature.homestead.com/chapter3.html
Loughborough
University,
2004
NUTRIENT CYCLES:
Energy flows but nutrients cycle. The molecules in an organism will eventually be
found in another organism.
Carbon Cycle: Changing the location of this element is the primary issue in global
warming. We are moving carbon from where it has been stored (fossil fuels) to the
atmosphere, where it acts to reduce the amount of heat reradiated to space.
The rate of movement (flows) between pools can be slow or fast depending upon the
nature of the pool.
Boxes in the figure refer to pools of carbon, and arrows refer to the
movement, or fluxes, of carbon from one pool to another.
Diunduh
Loughborough
University,
2004
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Changing the location of this element is one of the primary reasons for the
increased nutrient load in aquatic ecosystems. We move phosphorus from where
it has been concentrated, e.g., in guano, and deposit it on soil (or in consumer
products), where it is released to water.
The rate of movement (flows) between pools can be slow or fast depending upon
the nature of the pool.
This figure shows the movement of phosphates through an

ecosystem.
Diunduh
Loughborough
University,
2004
NITROGEN CYCLE
Changing the location of this element is the other reason for the increased
nutrient load in aquatic ecosystems. (Nitrogen and phosphorus are limiting
factors in aquatic ecosystems.)
The rate of movement (flows) between pools can be slow or fast depending
upon the nature of the pool.
The flow of nutrients into Chesapeake Bay (primarily nitrogen) has been cited as
the primary reason for the outbreak of Physteria.
This figure shows the movement of nitrogen through an ecosystem.
Diunduh
Loughborough
University,
2004
THE SECOND BASIC PRINCIPLE OF

ECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY
" For sustainability, ecosystems dispose of wastes and replenish nutrients by
recycling all elements."
Arranging organisms by feeding relationships and depicting the energy and nutrient
inputs and outputs of each relationship show a continuous recycling of nutrients in
the ecosystem, a continuous flow of energy through it, and a decrease in biomass.
Diunduh
Loughborough
University,
2004
Seven Dimensions of Sustainable Agriculture

by Nicanor Perlas
Almost everybody talks about sustainable agriculture as an alternative to the outworn
green revolution agriculture. However, the term has quickly become an empty
phrase meaning almost anything including such oxymoron terms as safe pesticides
and environmentally friendly biotechnology. Even WTO advocates use sustainable
agriculture to justify corporate control of the food chain. It is important for civil
society, which originated the idea, to concretely articulate what it understands by the
term sustainable agriculture.
Diunduh
dari: http://www.cadi.ph/sustainable_agriculture.htm
Loughborough
University,
2004
Fro
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
m
Sustainable Development is the process by which we move towards

sustainability
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987)
This was endorsed in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio
Seven Dimensions of Sustainable Development

The five dimensions of sustainable development are clearly visible.
These arethe human being, culture, polity, economy, and Nature. However, to this
five, we need to consider society as a separate dimension. Society can be understood as
the integrative result of interactions of the different activities in culture, polity, and the
economy.
The population issue, for example, is a development issue that can only be addressed
from a societal perspective, not just from culture alone, or the economy alone, or polity
alone.
DiunduhUniversity,
dari: http://www.cadi.ph/sustainable_development.htm
Loughborough
2004
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
What is sustainable development?
Sustainable development is defined as balancing the fulfillment of human
needs with the protection of the natural environment. A common definition of
sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs." The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into
three constituent parts: environmental protection, economic sustainability, and
social justice
Source: Adapted from Ralph Hall, Introducing the Concept of

Sustainable Transport
to the U.S. DOT through the Reauthorization of TEA-21
Diunduh dari: University,

http://www.uitp.org/public-transport/sustainabledevelopment/
Loughborough
2004
Youth and the Environment:

7 Environmental Principles
The key to understanding the environmental problems that we encounter today is to
learn about our ecosystem. This section highlights the basic environmental principles,
varied types of ecosystem, current environmental issues, anthropogenic activities that
threat the environment and the role of youth in protecting our environment.
Nature knows best.

This principle is the most basic and in fact encompasses all the others. Humans have
to understand nature and have to abide by the rules nature dictates. In essence, one
must not go against the natural processes if one would like to ensure a continuous
and steady supply of resources.
One natural process that needs serious attention is nutrient cycling. In nature,
nutrients pass from the environment to the organisms and back to the environment.
Any disruption in the cycle can bring about imbalance.
For example, burning of farm wastes instead of allowing them to decompose
naturally disrupts the cycle. In burning, most of the organic compounds are lost. The
combustion products bring greater havoc as in the case of carbon dioxide build-up,
which results in the warming-up of the earth, or the so-called "greenhouse" effect.
Nature has also its built-in mechanisms to maintain balance of homeostasis - the
availability of nutrients, conduciveness of the environment for growth and
reproduction, and the feeding relationships that exist between and among organisms
which serve as population controls. For example, the rat population is controlled by
the presence and number of its predators, e.g., snakes.
The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizer disrupts check and balance in the
ecosystem. Pesticides can either kill vital organisms directly or induce genetic
changes that result in resistant pests or organisms. Chemical fertilizers increase the
acidity of the soil through time making a number of nutrients unavailable and thus,
unfit for the survival of plants and other organisms.
History and our experiences are full of examples to prove the validity of this
principle. In fact, this principle only surfaced when many of the detrimental effects of
technology were recognized and coined thereon as "ecological backlash."
Source: Science and Health: Matrix and Modules on Environmental Management
Diunduh dari:
http://beta.pemsea.org/topics/youth
2004

All forms of life are important
Each organism plays a fundamental role in nature. Since such occupational or
functional position, otherwise known as niche, cannot be simultaneously occupied by
more than one specie, it is apparent that all living things must be considered as
invaluable in the maintenance of homeostasis in the ecosystem.
It is easy to appreciate the beautiful butterflies, especially knowing their important
role in pollination. The giant beasts the elephants, the whales, the alligators are
objects of awe and the products they yield ivory, oil, leather, respectively are
highly prized. But when it comes to unlovely, wriggly, and troublesome creatures,
this principle is unusually overlooked.
For instance, it has been customary for many to step on any wriggling creature (e.g.
earthworms) without even considering why God made them in the first place. People
also react adversely to the presence of snakes. At home, spiders are looked at with
disdain. Awareness of the snakes' role in limiting the rat population and of the
spiders' role in checking the population of mosquitoes and flies may, however,
change this attitude.
Diunduh dari:
2004

Everything is connected to everything else
This principle is best exemplified by the concept of the ecosystem. In an ecosystem,
all biotic and amniotic components interact with each other to ensure that the system
is perpetuated. Any outside interference may result in an imbalance and the
deterioration of the system.
In a lake ecosystem, the organisms are linked to one another through their feeding
habit/level and are also dependent on other physico-chemical factors in the lake (e.g.
amount of nutrients, amounts and types of gases, temperature, PH, etc.). At the same
time, the physico-chemical factors in the lake are influenced by the terrestrial
environment that surrounds it. The fertilizers that reach the lake cause a faster growth
of phytoplankton, which may lead to algae bloom, red tide, or other such phenomena.
This principle may be discussed in local, regional, or global perspective.
Deforestation in the mountains may affect the lowlands through floods, drought, and
erosion. Whatever happens to one country may affect other countries. An example of
this is the Chernobyl accident, which affected a lot of countries through the transfer
of radioactive substances by natural agents such as wind and water, as well as human
activities like the export of contaminated food.
Diunduh dari:
2004

Everything changes
It is said that the only permanent thing is change. As a general classification, change
may be linear, cyclical or random. As example of linear change is evolution of
species, which has brought about higher and more complex types of organisms.
Cyclical change may be exemplified by seasons and the rhythms in floral and faunal
life stages that go with the seasons. An example of random change is the eruption of
Mt. Pinatubo, which brought about great upheaval in many parts of Luzon and
changes in the topography of the land.
The environment is constantly changing. Organisms also evolve through time.
However, mans technology has affected these natural changes often to a problematic
extent. Although mutation is a natural change, pesticides have induced insect
mutations, which are not matched by natural checks and balances.
Humans should rethink their relationship with the environment. Changes that they
think may be beneficial to the environment often turn out to be disastrous.
Environmental technologies should be given priority if man would want more
positive changes in the environment.
Diunduh dari:
2004

Everything must go somewhere

When a piece of paper is thrown away, it disappears
from sight but it does not cease to exist. It ends up
elsewhere. Gases released in smokestacks may disperse
but it will end up a component of the atmosphere or
brought down by rains. What a particular type of waste
does to the earth's repository should be of concern to us.
It may be a pollutant or a resource depending on certain
factors.
Since wastes are not lost to oblivion, and even goes back
to one's own backyard in some other forms, it is
important that one becomes aware of the different types
of wastes whether they are hazardous or not.
Classification of wastes facilitates their proper disposal
and minimizes, if not prevents, the entry of toxic wastes
in vital ecosystems and ensures reconversion into useful
forms.
Source: Science and Health: Matrix and Modules on
Environmental Management
Diunduh dari:
2004

Ours is a finite earth
The earths resources can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable.
Renewable resources are those that can easily be replenished by natural cycles (e.g.
water, air, plants, and animals) while non-renewable resources are those that cannot
be replenished through natural cycles (e.g. ores of various metals, oil, coal).
Although renewable resources can be replenished, it is important to note that these
are renewable only as long as they are not overused nor destroyed from such factors
such as pollution. To ensure that these resources will be continually replenished, it is
essential to know how much of a resource can be consumed at a given time to
balance the rate of exploitation with the rate of replenishment.
Just how long would the earth be able to sustain demands on its resources? This is a
question that needs serious reflection. Unless the factors of population growth,
lifestyles, and polluting technologies are checked, the collapse of the earth might be
inevitable.
Awareness of the earth's limited resources leads to a conscious effort to change one's
consumerist attitude as well as to develop processes and technology that would bring
about effective recycling of a great number of resources.
Diunduh dari:
2004

Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God's creation
Among all creatures, humans are the only ones made in God's image and have been
given the right to have dominion over all His creations. Being the most intelligent
and gifted with reason, humans are capable of manipulating creation to their own
advantage. Yet, creation exists not to be ravaged or abused but to be taken care of.
Humans cannot exist without nature.
They are co-natural with the environment they live in. If the environment they live in
is destroyed, with it will go Homo Sapiens.
This principle is inherent in all religious and tribal beliefs. Teachings of Christianity,
Buddhism, and Islam enjoin everyone to respect all life and the order of nature.
Words of Chief Seattle, Macli-ing Dulag, and Chito Mendez point to our duty to
discern the true worth of modern systems and techniques to reject those that degrade,
and promote those that elevate the human condition.
Diunduh dari:
2004

Azas Azas Kajian Lingkungan

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Azas Azas Kajian Lingkungan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bahan Kajian

MK. Kajian Lingkungan dan

Loughborough University, 2004

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the

What is the definition of environmental science?

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES is the body of knowledge related to the

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES is the interdisciplinary academic field which

Loughborough University, 2004Diunduh dari:

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES?

The Value of Biodiversity

DEFINING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development pillars and development objectives

Promote interregional Respect the diversity

Promote social and

Sustainable development concept

Agreements with communities

Multipurpose use of facilities

Regional economic spinoffs

Conceptual model of landfill exposure sources and environmental pathways

Diunduh dari: University,

AZAS DASAR ILMU

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Conservation and Efficiency

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Energy & Food chain

Photosynthesis is the conversion

Diunduh dari: http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/home/cxguo/energy&ecosystem_files/main.html

Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

Diunduh dari: http://www.learner.org/courses/envsci/unit/text.php?unit=4&secNum=3

Diunduh dari: http://www.ust.hk/~webpepa/pepa/lecture_notes/ecosystem/index.htm

The flow and transfer of energy

How energy enters an ecosystem

Diunduh dari: http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k12lrcd/learning_areas/bio_science/bio1b/content/001_ecosystems/page_04.htm

How energy leaves an ecosystem

Light energy > Autotrophs > Heterotrophs > Heat energy

Diunduh dari: http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k12lrcd/learning_areas/bio_science/bio1b/content/001_ecosystems/page_04.htm

AZAS DASAR ILMU

Energy Movement in Ecosystems: Trophic & Energy

Diunduh dari: http://schoolworkhelper.net/2011/01/energy-movement-in-ecosystemstrophic-energy-pyramid/

Percentage efficiency of energy transfer

AZAS DASAR ILMU

Loughborough University, 2004

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Nature provides us with many resources

All the natural resources and

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

dari: http://www.springerimages.com/Images/RSS/1-10.1007_s13595-011-0038-6 Diunduh

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Diunduh dari: http://ricehoppers.net/2009/11/communicating-biodiversity-and-ecologicalengineering-to-farmers/

Using the right planting density is critical for optimum yield

Economic value of pickling cucumber as affected by planting density.

Insights into plant size-density relationships from models and

ALLEY CROPPING = PERTANAMAN LORONG

Diunduh dari: http://www.agnet.org/library.php?

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Effect of Technical Change on Fertilizer Use and Yields

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Diunduh dari: http://www.collaboration-llc.com/blog/2012/05/31/is-great-better-than Loughborough

AZAS DASAR ILMU LINGKUNGAN

Diunduh dari: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookpopecol.html

Ecosystem energy, nutrient and food pathways

What are Abiotic components?

Diunduh dari: http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/scripter/geog100/lect/16-ecosystemsbiomes/ecosystems-files/ecosystems.htm