Radar and Navigation

Systems
By: Najeeb Haider Zaidi

Navigation
Navigation is the process of directing the
movements of a vehicle successfully from
one point to another. The vehicle may be
spacecraft, aircraft, ship, submarine or a
car.

Navigational Techniques
Navigational Techniques

Dead Reckoning

Piloting

Celestial Navigation

Electronic Navigation

Position and Direction on Earth

Surface

Position
Direction
Speed
Distance

The Earth

Poles
North and South
East and West
Great Circle
Small Circle
Equator
Meridians

Positioning on Earth

Latitude
Longitude

Prime Meridian
Equator

Positioning on Earth

F
C

C
E

Figure 1

Figure 2

Course and Bearing

Direction
Bearing
True Bearing
True Course

The Compass
The navigational Compass is an
instrument that gives the necessary datum
line from which the course and bearing
can be measured.
There are three kinds of Compass.
Magnetic Compass
Gyro Compass
Gyro-Magnetic Compass

Magnetic Compass
Earth behaves like a
magnet with its magnetic
south towards the North
pole and magnetic north
towards the south pole.
So if a magnet is
suspended or pivoted, its
north would be attracted
towards the magnetic
south of the earth or
towards the north pole.
And vice versa.

Gyro Compass
The spinning free
wheel defends the
change in the
direction of its
spinning axis, this
property of the wheel
is used to point the
true north.

Gyro-Magnetic Compass
It uses the magnetic compass to seek the
north and then uses gyro to stabilize it.
When correct variations and deviations
are set on compass console, it transmits
the true north.

Use of Electromagnetic Radiations

for Navigations
Radio Devices were started more than a
century ago.
Before the invention of the radio waves,
ships used classical methods of piloting,
and dead reckoning by using the magnetic
compass, or classical sounding
techniques.
But there were many problems with those
techniques.

Direction Finding
There are two methods of Determining the
bearing line from a shore based or ship
based transmitter.
Measuring the direction of propagation of the
received waves, which have followed the
great circle between the transmitter and
receiver.
Listening with a normal receiver to a
transmitter at fixed position radiating different
signals in different directions.

Radio Direction Finders

The use of wireless receiver
and special loop antennas
for direction finding had been
developed by Marconi
Communications by 1916.
The secret chains of DF
stations were in use tracking
Surface Crafts, Submarines.
But the development was
kept secret until after the end
of the war.

German U-67 showing DF antenna.

Courtesy Robert Derencin (www.uboat.net)

Radio Direction Finders

A direction finder consists of a ship board receiver and
aerial system used together to determine the direction of
the incoming radio wave.
The angle between the direction and the known direction
(eg. True North) is determined and the position of the
transmitting station is known, it is possible to draw a line
on which the ship is situated on the chart.
The 2nd position line can be found a bearing from a 2nd
stations. The point of intersection of the two lines may be
assumed to be the position of the ship.

Advantages of Direction Finder

Bearings of any transmitting station can be
taken.
Direction finders can be used for costal
navigation almost everywhere in the world
owing to the many special radio beacons
on or near the coast.
The Radio Direction Finders are not
expensive as compared to other
navigational aids.

Working Principle 1
If a changing number of magnetic lines of
forces pass through the surface enclosed by
the windings of a coil, voltage is induced in the
windings.
The alternating current in a transmitting aerial
also sets up lines of magnetic force, which are
propagated in the speed of light.

Working Principle 2
In order to use this
rediation to determine the
radio bearings from a
transmitter, a loop aerial
is used instead of coil
The diameter of the loop
is about 1 meter, there
are number of windings
inside the circular tube,
so this aerial can be
considered as a coil.

Working Principle 3

When this type of aerial is

located in the radiation field of
the transmitter, the changing
number of magnetic lines,
induce alternating voltage in
the coil.
The induced voltage would be
at its peak at the position as
shown in the figure, and would
be the minimum if aerial is
rotated to 90 horizontally,
since at that position no lines
of force would be passing
through the coil.

Working Principle 3
Diagram below presents the planar view of the
antenna. Spinning about the axis O, the circle
over here shows the rotation path of the
antenna.
B
D

OG

Direction Finding
In order to find out the
direction of the
transmitter, the aerial is
rotated and two reading
are taken,
At maximum signal
strength the aerial is
parallel with the
transmitter and at zero
signal strength the aerial
is perpendicular to the
transmitter.

Problem with the System

During one cycle of
the DF there are two
maximum positions
and one minimum
position.

Solution of the Problem

The problem can be
solved easily by
employing a simple
aerial vertically at the
center of the loop.
This aerial receives
equally from all
directions, hence
forming a circular
pattern.

Solution of the Problem

Solution of the Problem

The Whole System

1). Receiver
2). Loudspeaker
3). Loop antenna
4). Handle

Bellini Tosi System

Principal Errors
Errors Caused by surroundings:
Transmitters induce the alternating voltage not only in
the aerial but in its surroundings as well, in the hull,
the mast of the ship etc.
In all these conductors small alternating current will
be induced, which in turn give rise to the radio waves.
The phenomenon is known as reflection.
These waves arrives at the DF aerial from different
directions with different strengths and delays
generating noise.
This results in continuous generation of tone even
when the aerial is perpendicular to the transmitter.

Principal Errors
Night Effect
It is caused by the deviation of the magnetic lines of
force in the ionosphere from the horizontal, although
they remain perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
If the observer is unaware of this he will turn the
search coil to a position in which reception is zero and
will coincide that the transmitter is located deviated to
its true direction.
Bearings are unreliable during the night effect, which
is predominant within one hour of sunrise and sunset.

Factors Effecting the Accuracy of

Radio Bearings
Presence and absence of night effect.
Distance to stations from where bearings
are taken (An error of 1 means a position
error of 0.17 nautical mile for every 10
nautical miles distance from the beacon).
Angle of intersection of bearing lines.
Quality of DF apparatus.
Accuracy with which the bearings are
taken.

Radars
Brief Historical Survey

Brief Historical Survey

Pulse radar was developed from basic ideas
originated by physicists who were investigating
the ionosphere, particularly with a view to
establish the height from which the radio waves
appeared to be reflected to earth.
Their technique was to cause a transmitter to
emit a short burst of radiation, and by using a
suitable aerial to direct the radiation vertically.
The signals that returned to earth were picked
up on another aerial, and the time between the
emission and reception was measured, to
calculate the effective height of the layer.

Brief Historical Survey

Bats use a similar technique, to enable them to
fly about in enclosed spaces. They emit
supersonic cries and listen for the time elapsing
before they hear the echo from any object in
their path.
Man has also used a sonic form of radar when,
for example lost on fog at sea of a cliff bound
shore, he shouts and waits for the echo from the
cliffs.
By using megaphone to increase the directivity
of his voice he can gain a rough indication of the
direction and the distance of the coast.

Brief Historical Survey

Around 1920s British American scientists
discovered that Radio waves are reflected
by objects in their path.
As early as 1922 Marconi forecast that
reflections could be obtained from targets,
such as ships or aircrafts so establishing
their position.

Brief Historical Survey

The urge towards a practical application of the discovery
came in 1930s when a mean of protecting Britain against
bomb attack was being sought.
So, a British Scientist R.A. Watson-Watt was given the
facilities to design experimental equipment on the Essex
coast.
The equipment proved a success far beyond the
expectations of the designers.
The chain of stations round the Britain was installed by
1939, which made it capable of giving warnings of the
approaching aircrafts out to range in excess of 100 miles.
To conceal the revolutionary nature of the equipment, it
was first called RDF.

Brief Historical Survey

The second world war revealed the immense
possibilities of radar, and enabled great efforts to
be expanded upon it , leading to rapid
developments and improvements.
The early radar sets utilized a wavelength of
about 7 meters but to design a radar sets which
could give good performance against small
targets at close range such as submarine
periscopes, or buoys, it was necessary to use a
much shorter wavelength of around 10cms.

Brief Historical Survey

Invention of multicavity magnetron permitted to
development of shorter wavelength radar.
Since 1945 the development of radar has progressed,
and diverged continuously, resulting initially in naval
radar sets designed for specific purposes such as
Navigation: Low Power, High Definition
Target Indication: Medium Power, Accurate Bearing
Air Warning: High Power, Long Range.

Present day, radars are general purpose devices, there

are radars for civil purposes, like treasure hunting,
minesweeping, car collision warnings, etc. But their
primary use is still air surveillance.

Echo Principle of the Pulsed Radar

The range is obtained on the Echo-Ranging
Principle. Seamen have long been familiar with
this principle. In ships approaching cliffs in fog, it
was used in the following way.
A short blast was sounded on the siren and
simultaneously a stop-watch was started. After an
interval the echo was heard and time noted. Since the
speed of sound waves is known(335m/s) the range of
the cliffs could be estimated.

Radar works on the same principle but uses

radio waves instead.

Basic Radar Groups

Radar development along various
lines resulted in certain groups

Primary Radar
Radar Sends a signal, if it strikes a
suitable target, it is reflected back to the
receiver. The receiver portion of the signal,
or echo, will be very small compared with
the transmitted signal.
Measurement of the time taken for the
transmission Radio wave to reach the
contact and reflected back enables the
range if contact to be measured.

Primary Radar
Two possible methods are used.
Pulsed Radar: A short pulse is transmitted and the
radar waits for a possible echo to be returned before
transmitting the next pulse.
Used in Surveillance Radars.

FM CW Radar: Frequency of the Continuous

transmission is altering at a known rate, and therefore
comparison of outgoing and incoming frequencies
give a measure of time and hence range.
Used in Missile Radar Systems.

Secondary Radar
In Secondary radar, the signal transmitted is
used to trigger a transmission from the contact.
Thus the received signal is not an echo but a
transmitted signal from the contact. Like;
An Airport radar can trigger responses from aircraft
waiting to land.
Aircraft transmission can trigger responses from fixed
transmissions whose positions are accurately known,
in order to aid the aircraft for its position
determination.
An Aircraft can be challenged by a warships
secondary radar at a considerable range. A friendly
aircraft should provide a known response. IFF

Basic Principle of Radar

Transmitted Signal

Transmitter
Target
Receiver
Target Detection

Echo Signal
Range to Target

Radar Range
A pulse of microwave energy is transmitted and
the range R of the target can be determined by
measuring the out-and-back time, TR
cTR
R
2

With the range in Kilometers or in nautical miles,

and T in microseconds, R becomes,
R ( Km) 0.15TR ( s )

R (nmi ) 0.081TR ( s )

Maximum Unambiguous Range

Once a signal is radiated into space by a radar,
sufficient time (TP) must elapse to allow all echo
signals to return to the radar before the next
pulse is transmitted.
The rate at which the pulses are transmitted,
therefore, is determined by the longest range at
which the targets are expected. This range is
categorized as Maximum Unambiguous range.
Given by;
cTP
c
Run

2
2 fp

Range Resolution
The range resolution of a radar is specified in
terms of minimum distance between targets
that allows the targets to be seen as
independent objects. It can be determined by
the Pulse Duration(). By using the following
formula;

RRe s

Radar Range Equation

Echoed power from the Target that the radar Receives is
given by;
2 2
Where;

PT G
PR
3 4
64 R

PR= Received Power

PT=Transmitted Pulse Power
G=Gain of Transmitted and Received Antennae (Same antenna)
R=Range of target
= Radar Cross Section of target-the value of RCS depends on a
number of factors, including; size and orientation of target,
material of target, frequency of transmitted signal.
= Wavelength of transmitted Microwave Signal

Class Exercise

The following data apply to a 3-cm pulsed radar

system:

Pulse Period=100sec
Pulse Duration=0.8sec
Average Pulse Power=300W
Common transmit/receive antenna with gain of 18dB

Determine
1.
2.
3.
4.

The maximum unambiguous range of the radar

The range resolution
The pulse power received from a target having a rcs of 40 sqm
located at the maximum range
The required receiver sensitivity with the Fade Margin of 10dB

Solution
Maximum Unambiguous Range:
cTP 3 108 100
Run

15 Km
2
2

Range Resolution:
RRe s

c 3 108 0.8

120meters
2
2

Pulse Power Received:

PT G 2 2 300 (101.8 ) 2 (0.03) 2 (40)

16
PR

4
.
3

10
W 153.7 dBW
3 4
3
4
64 R
64 (3.14) (15 K )

Receiver Sensitivity:
Receiver Sensitivity= PR-FM=-153.7dB-10=-163.7dBW

Radar Block Diagram

Pulse
modulator

Antenna

Duplexer

Power
Amplifier

Waveform
Generator

IF
Matched
amplifier Filter

LNA

Demodulator

Video
amplifier

Threshold
Decision

Output
Local
Osc.

Applications of Radar

Air Traffic Control (ATC)

Radars are employed throughout the world for
the purpose of safely controlling air traffic enroute and in the vicinity of airports.
Aircrafts and ground vehicular traffic is
monitored by High resolution radars.
Radars has been used with GCA (Ground
Control Approach) systems to guide aircraft safe
landing in bad weather.
In addition to that Microwave Landing system
and ATC radar beacon systems are largely
based in large part on radar Technology.

Aircraft Navigation
Weather avoidance radar used on aircraft
to outline regions of precipitation to the
pilot is a classical form of radar.
Radar is also used for terrain avoidance
and terrain following.
The FM/CW or pulse radars are used as
radio altimeter and Doppler navigators.

Ship Safety
Radars are used as warning systems of
potential collision with other ships.
For the detection of navigation buoys,
especially in poor visibility
High resolution radars are used for the
surveillance of harbors.
Automatic Detection and tracking
equipments employ radars systems as
well mostly for collision avoidance.

Space
Space vehicles use radars as an important
part of their design.
Ground based tracking and detection of
Satellites.
Satellite borne radars are used for remote
sensing.

Remote Sensing
Radars has been used as remote sensors
of weather.
Geographical explorations.
Remote sensing for the Measurement and
mapping of sea condition, water
resources, agriculture, forestry conditions,
geological formations and environmental
pollution.

Law Enforcement
Speed measurements of cars.
Intruder detection.
UWB radars are used to see through the
walls.

Military
Surveillance, Navigation, Control and
guidance of weapons.
Air defense.
The largest use of radar is in this sector.