Control System Instrumentation

Standard Instrument Signals

Pneumatic (air pressure): 3 15 psig
Electrical: 4 20 mA
I/P or E/P transducer

Chapter 9

Transducers and Transmitters

Figure 9.3 illustrates the general configuration of a

measurement transducer; it typically consists of a sensing
element combined with a driving element (transmitter).
Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has come into
widespread use.

Sensors

Chapter 9

The book briefly discusses commonly used sensors for the most
important process variables. (See text.)

Transmitters
A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level
appropriate for input to a controller, such as 4 to 20 mA.
Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
In addition, most commercial transmitters have an adjustable
input range (or span).
For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted so that
the input range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is
50 to 150 C.

Chapter 9

Chapter 9

Range and Scale Factor

range 50 to 150 C
20 4
o
scale factor
0.16 mA / C
150 50
Gm s 0.16
o

Transfer Function Nonlinear

Case

dTm
Gm s K m
dT

nominal

Chapter 9

Measurement / Transmission Lags

Chapter 9

Temperature sensor

Tm ( s)
1

T ( s) m s 1

ms Cs
m
U s As

make mas small as possible (location, materials for

thermowell)
Pneumatic transmission lines
usually pure time delay, measure experimentally (no time
delays for electronic lines); less common today compared
to electronic transmissions.

Chapter 9

Transmitter/Controller

May need additional transducers for Gm if its output is in

mA or psi. In the above case, Gc is dimensionless (volts/volts).

Measurement Errors
Systematic errors
Drift: slowly changing instrument output when
input is constant.
Nonlinearity
Hysteresis or backlash
Dead band
Dynamic error

Random errors

Chapter 9
Figure 9.15 Nonideal instrument behavior: (a) hysteresis,
(b) dead band.

Chapter 9

Chapter 9

Precision, Resolution, Accuracy

and Repeatability
Precision can be interpreted as the number of
significant digits in measurement, but more
accurately it refers to the least significant digit
which contains valid information, e.g., 0.01 in the
present case. Therefore, 0.33 is more precise than
0.3.
Resolution is defined as the smallest change in the
input that will result in a significant change in the
transducer output.
Repeatability is +/- 0.02 in the present case.
Accuracy is 0.39-0.25=0.14, i.e., maximum error.

Final Control Elements

The most-common manipulated variables to
be adjusted are: (1) energy flow rates, and
(2) material flow rates.
Type (1): transducer + heating element
Type (2): transducer + control valve (pump
drive, screw conveyer, blower, etc.)

Chapter 9

Control Valve Characteristics

(Inherent)
Design equation for liquids
q Cv f l

Pv
gs

q: flow rate, gpm

Cv : valve coefficient, Cv valve size
l : valve lift, 0 l 1 (fraction open of the valve)
Pv : pressure drop across valve
g s : specific gravity

Chapter 9

(1) Quick Opening (square root trim)

Chapter 9

f l
(2) Linear Trim
f l
(3) Equal Percentage
f R l 1
R 20-50
df
df / f
Note that
f ln R
ln R constant
dl
dl
Note also that l 0 f R 1 l 0.05 inaccurate!

Pressure Drop Across Control

Valve Installed On-Line
In practical applications, one must take other flow
obstructions into account for actual valve
performance.

Design Guideline
Since P Ps Pv and
for ease of control Pv high
for low cost

Pv low

Pv 1
1

: to
at design flow rate qd
P
3
4

Chapter 9

Design Calculation for a Linear

Valve
pick l 0.5
qd

200
Cv

127
Pv 0.5 10
l
gs
select 4-in valve according to catalog

Rangeability (Turn-Down Ratio)

maximum controllable flow level flow at 95% lift

minimum controllable flow level flow at 5% lift

rangeability=19 for linear valves
rangeability=34 for equal-percentage valves (R=50)
rangeability=3 for quick-opening valves

Example
If the flow rate is reduced to 25% of the design level,
2

50
Phe 30
1.9 (psi)
200
Pv 40 1.9 38.1 (psi)
q
50
f l

0.06 (almost closed)

Pv 127 38.1
C
gs

Installed Valve Characteristics

Desired behavior: the flow rate is a linear function
of valve lift.
Let us assume that the control valve has linear
trim and it is necessary to increase the flow rate.
If p through exchanger did not change, then
valve would behave linearly (true for low flow
rates), since it takes most of p . For higher flow
rates, p through exchanger will be important,
changing effective valve characteristics (valve
must open more than expected nonlinear
behavior).

Linear Valve Behavior

l 0.5 qd 200 gpm Cv 127 (calculated previously)

200

Phe 30

200

Pv
q Cv l
127l
gs

Pv 40 30

q
40 30

200

127 40 30

200

0.5

0.5

Equal-Percentage Valve
Characteristics
Assume R 50 f l 50l 1
Assume l =1 qmax 1.1qd 1.1 200 220
Cv

f l

q 115 50

q
220

115
11
2
Pv / g s 50
40 30 1.1
l 1

q
40 30

200

0.5

1
q

l 1
ln
ln 50 115 40 30 q / 200 2

0.5

Chapter 9

Chapter 9

Control Valve Transfer Function

Kv
Gv s
vs 1
where
q
Kv
p t
l q

p l

gpm gpm
or

%CO
psi