ACTION THEORIES

S o ci o l o g ic a l
theory

WHAT ID WRITE IN THE INTRODUCTION

OF AN ESSAY
S t r u c t u r a l t h e o r i e s s u c h a s Fu n c t i o n a l i s m a n d M a rx i s m a re m a c ro - l e v e l , t o p - d o w n
a n d d e t e r m i n i s t i c , a n d v i e w s s o c i e t y a s a re a l t h i n g o u t t h e re t h a t s h a p e s o u r
i d e a s a n d b e h a v i o u r , a n d s o t o u n d e r s t a n d p e o p l e s b e h a v i o u r , w e m u s t fi r s t
u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u re t h a t s h a p e s i t .
H o w e v e r , u n l i ke s t r u c t u r a l t h e o r i e s , a c t i o n t h e o r i e s a re m i c ro - l e v e l , b o t t o m u p ,
v o l u n t a r i s t i c a p p ro a c h e s t h a t f o c u s e s o n t h e a c t i o n s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s
a s h a v i n g f re e w i l l a n d c h o i c e . O u r a c t i o n s a re n o t d e t e r m i n e d b y s o c i e t y a s
s t r u c t u r a l t h e o r i e s b e l i e v e , b e c a u s e w e p o s s e s s a g e n c y a n d s o t h e re f o re w e c a n
s h a p e s o c i e t y t h ro u g h o u r c h o i c e s , m e a n i n g s a n d a c t i o n s .
T h e f o u r c r u c i a l a c t i o n t h e o r i e s a re We b e r s s o c i a l a c t i o n , s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m ,
p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y. A l t h o u g h a l l f o u r e m p h a s i s e a c t i o n a n d
i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e y d i ff e r i n h o w f a r t h e y s e e s t r u c t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f b e h a v i o u r.
___________________________________________________________________________
The debate goes as follow
Fo r We b e r s s o c i a l a c t i o n a n d s y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u re
i n fl u e n c e s h o w w e b e h a v e .
VS
Fo r p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g y c r i t i c i s e t h e a b o v e , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e re
i s n o t a s o c i a l s t r u c t u re o u t t h e re i n fl u e n c i n g o u r b e h a v i o u r.

WEBERS SOCIAL ACTION

We b e r s a w b o t h s t r u c t u r a l a n d a c t i o n a p p ro a c h e s a s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d
h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , a n d t h e re f o re n e e d e d a re a s o n a b l e ex p l a n a t i o n , w h i c h
involved to levels.
The level of cause Explains objective structural factors that shape our behaviour
The level of meaning The subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions
Fo r e x a m p l e , i n We b e r s s t u d y o f t h e r i s e o f c a p i t a l i s m , a t t h e s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l , t h e p r o t e s t a n t
re f o r m a t i o n i n t ro d u c e d a n e w b e l i e f s y s t e m , C a l v i n i s m a n d t h i s c h a n g e d p e o p l e s w o r l d v i e w ,
l e a d i n g t o c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o u r. H o w e v e r , a t t h e l e v e l m e a n i n g , i t h a d a r e l i g i o u s m e a n i n g
for the Calvinists as a calling by God, leading to the accumulation of wealth.
We b e r c l a s s i fi e s a c t i o n i n t o f o u r t y p e s , b a s e d o n t h e m e a n i n g f o r t h e a c t o r :
I n s t r u m e n t a l l y r a t i o n a l a c t i o n : T h e a c t o r c a l c u l a t e s t h e b e s t w a y s o f a c h i e v i n g g o a l . Fo r
e x a m p l e , c a p i t a l i s t m a y c a l c u l a t e t h a t t h e b e s t w a y t o b e c o m e p ro fi t a b l e i s t o p a y l o w w a g e s .
Va l u e - r a t i o n a l a c t i o n : A n a c t i o n t o w a r d s a g o a l t h a t t h e a c t o r m a y re g a r d a s d e s i r a b l e f o r i t s
o w n s a k e . Fo r e x a m p l e , w o r s h i p p i n g G o d i n o r d e r t o g e t t o h e a v e n .
Tr a d i t i o n a l a c t i o n : B e h a v i n g i n a t r a d i t i o n a l w a y a n d i n v o l v e s h a b i t u a l a c t i o n s .
A ff e c t u a l a c t i o n : E x p re s s e s e m o t i o n , s u c h a s w e e p i n g o u t o f g r i e f a n d d i s t r e s s

E VALUATIO N AN D C RITIC ISM OF W E B E R S SO C IAL

AC T IO N
Weber has been criticised on several grounds:
Schutz (1972) argues that Webers view of action is too
individualistic. For example, when a person a t a n auction ra ises
their hand, it means that they want to make a bid: BUT Weber,
does not explain how another person who does the same gesture
can have the same meaning. For example, I may raise my ha nd and
mean that I want to talk.
Weber however also advoca ted the use of vestehen but has not
explained how we can be the other person to empha size, a s we ca n
never truly explain and understand another persons motives.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
S y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m l o o k s o n h o w w e c a n c re a t e t h e s o c i a l w o r l d t h ro u g h o u r
interactions.
G.H MEAD (1931) argues that:
U n l i ke a n i m a l s w h o s e b e h a v i o u r i s g o v e r n e d b y i n s t i n c t s , h u m a n s c a n re s p o n d t o t h e
w o r l d b y g i v i n g m e a n i n g s t o t h e t h i n g s t h a t a re i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m . S o t h e re i s a n
i n t e r p re t i v e p h a s e b e t w e e n a s t i m u l u s a n d o u r re s p o n s e s t o i t ( a s w e fi r s t h a v e t o
i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g )
Fo r e x a m p l e , i f I s h a ke m y fi s t a t y o u , I a m u s i n g a s y m b o l t h a t h a s m a n y p o s s i b l e
m e a n i n g s , a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i s g o i n g o n y o u m u s t i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s
s y m b o l . Fo r e x a m p l e , a m I s h a k i n g m y fi s t a t y o u b e c a u s e I a m a n g r y o r b e c a u s e I a m
j o k i n g w i t h y o u ? W h e n y o u i n t e r p re t t h e s y m b o l , o n l y t h e n w i l l y o u k n o w h o w t o
re s p o n d .
A n i m a l s h o w e v e r , a s M e a d a r g u e d d o n o k n o w h o w t o i n t e r p re t a n o t h e r a n i m a l s a c t i o n s .
Fo r e x a m p l e , w h e n a d o g s n a r l s a t a n o t h e r d o g , t h e o t h e r d o n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y a d o p t s a
d e f e n s i v e p o s t u re ( i t c a n n o t i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g s o r w a y s t o re s p o n d , b e c a u s e i t s
re s p o n s e i s i m m e d i a t e .
S o a l l t h i s i s b a s i c a l l y s a y i n g t h a t w e c re a t e t h e s o c i a l w o r l d t h ro u g h o u r i n t e r a c t i o n s .
H o w e v e r , w e c a n i n t e r p re t o t h e r p e o p l e s m e a n i n g s b y t a k i n g t h e i r ro l e i . e . p u t t i n g
o u r s e l v e s i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n . T h i s a b i l i t y d e v e l o p s i n t e r a c t i o n . We fi r s t d o t h i s a s
c h i l d re n , t h ro u g h i m i t a t i v e p l a y w h e n w e t a ke o n t h e ro l e o f o u r p a re n t s a n d t h e n l a t e r
in life, we see the world as they saw it (as we put ourselves in their position) so we

HERBERT BLUMER
Blumer developed Meads interactionism: and stated
that our actions are based on the meanings that we
give to situations. Unlike animals, our actions are not
based on automatic responses to stimuli.
Blumers view of human conduct contrasts strongly
with Functionalism. Functionalist see individuals as
puppets (controlled by society) who passively respond
to the systems needs. By contrast, Blumer argues that
there is always room for choice and how we want to
perform certain roles (we can be active, as not all are
passive)

LABELLING THEORY
T h re e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i d e a s t h a t u n d e r p i n t h e l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y:
T h e d e fi n i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n : T h o m a s ( 1 9 6 6 ) a rg u e d t h a t i f p e o p l e d e fi n e
a s i t u a t i o n a s re a l , t h e n i t w i l l o n l y h a v e re a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h a t i s , i f w e
b e l i e v e s o m e t h i n g t o b e t r u e , t h e n t h i s b e l i e f w i l l a ff e c t h o w w e a c t . Fo r
ex a m p l e , i f a t e a c h e r l a b e l s a b o y a s a t ro u b l e m a ke r t h e n t h i s t e a c h e r w i l l b e
l i ke l y t o a c t d i ff e re n t l y t o w a rd s t h e m e . g . t re a t t h e m m o re h a r s h e r.
T h e l o o k i n g - c l a s s s e l f: C o o l e y ( 1 9 2 2 ) a rg u e s t h a t o u r s e l f- c o n c e p t c o m e s f ro m
o u r a b i l i t y t o t a ke o u t t h e ro l e o f t h e o t h e r. I n i n t e r a c t i o n s , b y t a k i n g t h e ro l e
of the other, we come to see ourselves as they see us. When we look in the
m i rro r , w e s e e o u r s e l v e s a s o t h e r p e o p l e s e e u s . T h ro u g h t h i s , s e l f- f u l fi l l i n g
p ro p h e c y o c c u r s w h e n w e b e c o m e w h a t o t h e r p e o p l e s e e u s a s .
C a re e r: B e c ke r a n d Le m e r t a p p l y t h i s c o n c e p t t o m e n t a l p e o p l e . I f s o m e o n e i s
d e fi n e d a s a m e n t a l p a t i e n t t h e n t h i s l a b e l w i l l o v e rr i d e a n y o t h e r p o s i t i v e
label that they have e.g. as good mothers and this label as a mental patient
w o u l d b e c o m e t h e i r m a s t e r s t a t u s l e a d i n g t o s e l f- f u l fi l l i n g p ro p h e c y.
Labelling theorist fail to establish what causes people to label others and also
i g n o re w i d e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u re s s u c h a s i n e q u a l i t i e s e t c .

GOFFMANS DRAMATURGICAL
MODEL
Goff mans dramaturgical model describes how we can
actively construct ourselves by manipulating other
peoples impressions of us, such as through acting.
Two key dramaturgical concepts are
presentations of self we can present a certain image
others, thereby controlling the way we appear to others
impression management includes tone of voice,
gestures and props e.g. in a theatre there is a front
stage where we act our our roles and a back stage
where we can step out of our role.
Also, teachers put on a front stage behaviour in
classrooms as professionals and in the staff room they

OVE RAL L E VALUAT ION OF S YM BOL IC IN T E RAC TION IS M

Interactionism avoids determinism of structural theories such

as Functionalism.
It focuses on face-to -face interactions and ignores wider
issues such as inequality and fails to explain the origin of our
labels.
Goff mans dramaturgical model is useful, but has its
limitations. For example, in interactions everyone plays the
part of the actor and audiences, and interactions are often
improvised and unrehearsed.
Ethnomethodologists argue that interactionism is correct in
focusing on an actors meanings, but fails to explain how
actors create meanings.

THE OTHER SIDE OF THE

ARGUMENT:
Pheno and ethnocriticise symbolic interactionism
and Webers social action theory! They argue that a
social structure does not exist out there that
infl uences our behaviour because we as humans have
free will and possess agency so we shape the social
structure ourselves through our own meanings

PHENOMENOLOGY
H u s s e r l a r g u e s t h a t t h e w o r l d o n l y m a ke s s e n s e t o u s b e c a u s e w e i m p o s e m e a n i n g s a n d
order on it by c onstructing mental categories. Schutz applies this idea to the social
world.
H e c a l l s t h i s t y p i fi c a t i o n s ( a l l o w s u s t o o r g a n i s e o u r e x p e r i e n c e s i n t o a s h a r e d w o r l d o f
m e a n i n g ) . T h e m e a n i n g o f a n a c t i o n v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t . Fo r e x a m p l e ,
p u t t i n g y o u r h a n d u p m e a n s t w o d i ff e r e n t t h i n g s a t a n a u c t i o n a n d i n a c l a s s ro o m .
Fo r t u n a t e l y , t y p i fi c a t i o n s m a ke s o c i a l o r d e r p o s s i b l e , b e c a u s e t h e y g i v e m e m b e r s o f
s o c i e t y a s h a r e d l i f e w o r l d o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t h a t w e c a n u s e t o m a ke s e n s e o f
o u r e x p e r i e n c e s . S c h u t z c a l l s t h i s r e c i p e k n o w l e d g e . L i ke a r e c i p e w e c a n f o l l o w i t
w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g t o o m u c h , u s i n g i t t o m a ke s e n s e o f t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d .
T h e s o c i a l w o r l d i s a n i n t e r- s u b j e c t i v e o n e t h a t e x i s t s o n l y w h e n w e a l l s h a r e t h e s a m e
meanings.
T he fac t t hat s oc i e ty ap p e ar s to us as a re al an d o bj e c ti ve th i ng sh ows th at al l m e m be rs
o f s oc i e ty sh are th e s am e m e an i ng s . Thi s al l ows u s to c oop e rate an d ac h i e ve ou r g oal s.
B e rge r an d Lu c k m an n re j e c t the vi e w th at re al i ty i s a so c i al c ons tr uc t. Onc e c on s tr uc te d ,
i t t a ke s o n a l i f e o f i t s o w n a n d b e c o m e a n e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y t h a t s h a p e s o u r l i v e s .

ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
L i ke p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s a l s o re j e c t t h e i d e a o f a s o c i e t y
ex i s t i n g o u t t h e re t h a t s h a p e s o u r b e h a v i o u r.
G a r fi n ke l a rg u e s t h a t s o c i a l o rd e r i s c re a t e d f ro m t h e b o t t o m u p . I t i s
something members of society actively construct in everyday life using
commonsensical knowledge.
T h e s o c i o l o g i s t s t a s k i s t o t h e re f o re u n c o v e r t h e t a ke n - f o r- g r a n t e d r u l e s p e o p l e
u s e t o c o n s t r u c t s o c i a l re a l i t y.
I n d e x i c a l i t y : m e a n i n g s m a y s o m e t i m e s n o t b e c l e a r. T h i s i s a t h re a t t o s o c i a l
o rd e r , b e c a u s e m e a n i n g s a re u n c l e a r a n d c o o p e r a t i o n b e c o m e s d i ffi c u l t .
Re fl ex i v i t y: i s t h e u s e o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t o c o n s t r u c t a s e n s e o f
m e a n i n g a n d o rd e r , s o t h a t i n d ex i c a l i t y c a n b e p re v e n t e d .
L a n g u a g e i s i m p o r t a n t i n a c h i e v i n g re fl ex i v i t y. I t g i v e s u s a s e n s e o f re a l i t y.
G a r fi n ke l u s e d b re a c h i n g ex p e r i m e n t s t o d i s r u p t p e o p l e s ex p e c t a t i o n s o f a
s i t u a t i o n . Fo r ex a m p l e , s t u d e n t s b e h a v i n g l i ke l o d g e r s i n t h e i r p a re n t s h o m e .
T h e s e s h o w h o w t h e o rd e r l i n e s s o f e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n s i s n o t i n e v i t a b l e a n d h o w
w e c a n u s e o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t o c re a t e a s o c i a l o rd e r.

EXAM QUESTIONS (PRACTICE)

Assess the usefulness of interactionist approaches to
the study of society (33 marks)
Assess the contribution of diff erent action theories
to our understanding of society today (33 marks)
Assess the contribution of symbolic interactionism to
our understanding of society (33 marks)