Yvonne Wrn

Tema Kommunikation

Information Processing In humans and machines

April 24, 2001

Information Processing
Psychology - IPP
Revolution and opposition against
behaviorism
Behaviorism characterised psychology in
general from about 1900 to about 1970.

What was behaviorism?

Theory to describe (explain and predict)
behaviour in observable terms only: Stimulus
- Response
Pavlov: conditioned reflex (dogs salivating)
Skinner: instrumental conditioning (pigeons playing
table-tennis)
Watson: conditioned behaviour (Child afraid of rabbits)
Nowadays: Behavioural therapy (diverse phobias)
Some computer supported learning

Information Processing
Psychology One of several approaches to model
cognitive and mental processes - in
opposition to behaviorism
(but still some behavioristic traits)

Other approaches with similar aim:

Gestalt Psychology, (contemporary with beh.)
Piaget (contemporary with behaviorism)
Bruner (inspired by Piaget)

Information Processing
Psychology - ingredients
Model from the computer In contrast to previous cognitive models that
were often statistical

A modelling language - production rules

In contrast to verbal descriptions

A qualitative method to derive information

processes
In contrast to quantitative methods

IP- model from the

computer (skipping psychology)
Model from the computer - (1956!)
Information processing:
Transformation of knowledge states from
start to goal: operations on symbols

Success: AI in form of The Logical

Theorist derived all theorems (and some
more) in Russel & Whiteheads volume on
Logics.

IP- model from the

computer
Was this human information processing?
No:
people have bounded rationality
Use heuristics
Use smart ways of representing problems
Are restricted by their information processing
apparatus

IP- modelling language

A modelling language - production rules
In contrast to verbal descriptions

If-then rules. The current state is matchted

towards the system of rules. The first rule
that matches the current state is fired.
Then a new state results, that is matched
What does this remind us of?

Information Processing :
methods
A qualitative method to derive information
processes
The think-aloud protocol was used to elicit
data on sequential problem solving.
Hypotheses: people expressed (parts of) that
what existed in their working memory - i.e.
part of the current knowledge state.

IPP - prerequisites-psychology
reintroduced
Since people are not computers, we have to use
reverse engineering to understand the
mechanisms by which they proceed:

Define problem
Identify process
Derive specific strategy from process
Derive general cognitive architecture from several
studies

Define problem

A problem exists when you have a goal and

an initial state that does not correspond to
the goal and you do not know how to get
from the initial state to the goal

Define problem space

Aproblemspaceconsistsofthehypothetical
statesthataproblemsolvergoesthroughinits
processing/transformationoftheinitialstateto
thegoalstate.
Ex.
Problemspace=intitialstate+operations
requiredtoreachgoalstate

Example of problem- Tower of

Hanoi
Youhavethreedisksonapeg(A)asinthefigure.These
shouldbemovedtotherightpeg(C).Youareonlyallowedto
moveonediskatatime.Youcanonlyplaceasmallerdiskon
topofabiggerone.
ABC

Think aloud protocol-example

:Tower of Hanoi
FirstIputthesmallestonehere(onC)
ThenIputthenextsmallesthere(onB)
ThenItakethebiggestone
Ono,thatisnotallowed,
OKImovethesmallestbacktoA
AndthenextsmallesttoC
ThenItakethesmallesttoB
Andthenextsmallesttowhereshoulditgo...

A think-aloud protocol can be

regarded as the top of the iceberg
Toppen
Toppen av
av isberget
isberget bild
bild

Some production rules that may

produce the think aloud protocol
IFgoalachievedTHENend
Ifdisc1freeTHENmovedisc1
Ifmovedisc1THENcheckifCispossible
IFCpossibleTHENmovedisc1toC
IFCisnotpossibleTHENmovedisc1toA
Ifdisc2freeTHENmovedisc2
Ifmovedisc2THENcheckifBispossible
IfBempty,THENmovedisc2toB
IFdisc3freeTHENmovedisc3
IFmovedisc3THENcheckifCispossible

What production rules may

produce the shortest path?
Can production rules only solve this
problem?

No: Rules are not sufficient!

Weneedasystemtointerprettherules!
Whatcanthesystemperceive?
Howshouldtheobjectsberepresented?
Inwhatorderaretheproductions
tested?
Howwilltheactionsperformedbe

A cognitive architecture
Defines how rules are interpreted
In what order they are taken
What conditions prevail for how the rules
may be written (for instance how many
conditions and actions are possible for
one rule)
How the results of actions are stored

From IP to HIP (Psychology has been

changed to human)

Human beings differ from computers in

several ways.
Therefore, we have to define a
mechanism that processes information
in a similar way as a human being, a HIP:
Human Information Processor

A cognitive architecture for Human

Information Processing (HIP)

Must comply with knowledge about human

beings.
Knowledge from various sources:

Senso-motoric
Attention
Perception
Memory
Metacognition

Visual rendering of a Human Cognitive

architecture (EPICS) (CHI 2001, p 130)
Longterm
memory

Task
Envi
ron
ment

Cognitiveprocessor

Productions

Productionrule

Auditory
input

Auditoryproc.

interpreter

Visual
input

Visualproc.

Vocalmotor
Manualmotor

Working
memory

Important HIP characteristics

to be considered
Perceptual capacities
(time for writing, time for retrieving)

Motor capacities
Eye and hand movements, time

Long-term memory (productions)

Time for writing, time for retrieving, type of productions

Working memory
(restricts amount of material on which productions may
work)

Important HIP characteristics

to be considered
Working memory
(restricts amount of material on which productions may
work)

5+/- 2 chunks
What is a chunk?
A meaningful unit
What is that?

Chunk
Chunkp
p
Zoo
Zoo

Important HIP characteristics

to be considered
Long-term memory (productions)
Time for writing, time for retrieving, type of
productions

Long-term memory (declarative)

Semantic networds
Schemata

Som
Som
ChokladChokladpudding
pudding

Characteristics of ingredients in
the human information processor
FromNewell&Simon,1972
renderedbyCard,Moran&Newell,1983

Bild
Bildfrom
from
C,M&N
C,M&N

Applications of IP and HIP ideas

Rule-based systems:
Knowledge base systems
Intelligent tutoring
User modelling

HCI
Analytic models
Simulation models
Quasi-empirical approaches

HIP applied to HCI

Analytic model:
TAG: Task Action Grammar
Takes related tasks in a system, derives how
many rules that have to be used to perform these
tasks. The less rules, the easier to learn.

HIP applied to HCI

Simulation models
Different cognitive architectures:
ACT*
SOAR
Input data are processed through simulated user
model
Results: reaction times

HIP applied to HCI

Quasi-empirical approach:
GOMS
Analyses a task from an experts actions:
Goals, Operations, Methods and Selection rules

Further applications of GOMS:

Cognitive walkthrough - what will a user find
difficult in the system? (Goals, operations,
methods analysed with respect to the designers
knowledge about the user)

HIP applied to HCI

Further applications of GOMS:
Keystroke level calculations: How long will it take
to perform a task with the system?
Has been used to compare different system
solutions, for instance for telephone operators
asking callers questions.
A small change in the time taken may mean much
when many small tasks are performed by many
persons.

KeystrokelevelavGOMS

Task:Copyawordandpositionitatsomeplaceatthetext
Method:Gettheoperationsfromthemenu
1.Timetoidentifytheword
2.Timetomarktheword
3.Timetomovetothemenuandfindthewordcopy
4.Timetoclickoncopy
5.Timetogotothepositioninthetextwerethewordshouldbeplaced
6.Timetoclickinordertomovethecursortothisplace
7.Timetomovetothemenuandgetthecommandpaste.
8.Timetoclickforplacingtheword.
9.TimeforcheckingthattheresultisOK

ThetimeforthehandmovementsiscalculatedaccordingtoFittslaw

HIP applied to HCI

Learning The effect of prior knowledge
Positive (can use old rules):
Cognitive Complexity Theory (CCT)

Negative (interference with old rules)

En
Entjusig
tjusig
morgon
morgonp
p
kontoret
kontoret

Learning by doing
A problem solving approach is possible

Search!
Search!

Mismatching models
Conceptual models versus device models
versus the users model of the system
Designers have one particular (conceptual)
model in their mind about how a system should
work
The system is implemented to show a model
(device model) that may not be the same.
When users work with the system they may
construct yet another model of the system

Summary:
There is a gulf between perception and
execution. We may calculate the effects.

Goals
Intentions

Evaluation

Execution

Perception
System

(Norman, 1986)

Recent uses of IPP-models

(from CHI 2001)
Out of 69 papers, eight use some kind of theory.
HIP theory is used in all eight cases.

Recent uses of HIP-models

(Examples from CHI 2001)
Ignoring Perfect Knowledge-in-the-world for Imperfect
Knowledge-in-the head: Implications of rational analysis
for Interface Design
Predicting the Effects of In-Car Interfaces on Driver
Behavior Using a Cognitive Architecture
Towards Demystification of Direct Manipulation:
Cognitive Modeling Charts the Gulf of Execution
Beyond Command Knowledge: Identifying and Teaching
Strategic Knowledge for Using Complex Computer
Applications

Conclusions
HIP-models have a narrow range of
application
Within this range, they are surprisingly
successful
More so than any other models or
theories within HCI.
How
Howdo
dowe
we
know
knowwhich
which
applications
applications
??

How
Howis
is
success
success
defined?
defined?