Made

Wardhana

Literally "the love of wisdom" (Greek: philo = love, sophia

= wisdom), philosophy at the dawn of civilization was
synonymous with rational inquiry itself.
Two important starting points: love (or passion) and wisdom
(knowledge, understanding).
Philosophy sometimes seems to be pursued without passion as if it
were a technical subject like engineering or mathematics.
Although there is a role for dispassionate research, philosophy
must derive from some passion for the utimate goal: a reliable,
accurate understanding ourselves and our world.

What is philosophy?
philosophia Love of Wisdom Jenicek ja Hitchcock (2005)

philosphy is the study of fundamental

questions, that is, questions about concepts and
principles.
"Philosophy is the science by which the natural
light of reason studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things is, in other words, the
science of things in their first causes, in so far as
these belong to the natural order. (Jacques Maritain)

Philosophy?
Philosophy has been called
many things and it can have
many meanings
Those single words or
statements on the right side
are only some of them
What words would you add?

Wisdom
Reality
Theories
Meaning of Life
Nature of being
human
Life
perspectives

(By Roger Hiemstra, January, 2001)

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Examination of basic concepts: the branch of knowledge or

academic study devoted to the systematic examination of
basic concepts such as
truth, existence, reality, causality,
and freedom
School of thought: a particular system of thought or
doctrine
Guiding or underlying principles: a set of basic principles or
concepts underlying a particular sphere of knowledge
Set of beliefs or aims: a precept, or set of precepts, beliefs,
principles, or aims, underlying somebody's
practice or
conduct
Calm resignation: restraint, resignation, or calmness and
rationality in somebody's behavior or response to events

Main branches of philosophy :

Metaphysics (Ontology) (being and reality)
Epistemology (Knowledge)
Logic (inference); and
Axiology (values ethics & esthetics).

1. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of reality. More specifically
it is the study of reality that is beyond the scientific or
mathematical realms. The term metaphysics itself
literally means beyond the physical. The
metaphysical issues most discussed are the existence of
God, the soul, and the afterlife.

Metaphysica Generalis (ontologi);

ilmu tentang yg ada atau pengada.
Metaphysica Specialis terdiri atas:
1. Antropologi; menelaah ttg hakikat
manusia, terutama hub. jiwa & raga.
2. Kosmologi; menelaah ttg asal usul &
hakikat alam semesta.
3. Theologi; Kajian ttg Tuhan secara
rasional.

(C.Wolff)

2. Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.
It attempts to answer the basic question: What distinguishes true
(adequate) knowledge from false (inadequate) knowledge?
Practically, this question translates into issues of scientific
methodology: how can one develop theories or models that are
better than
competing theories?
It also forms one of the pillars of the new sciences of cognition,
and from artificial intelligence, as an attempt to develop computer
programs that mimic a human's capacity to use knowledge in an
intelligent way.

Logic knowledge
Logic is the study of right reasoning. It is the tool
philosophers use to study other philosophical
categories.
Good logic includes the use of good thinking skills
and the avoidance of logic fallacies.

3. Logic

Construction of general
knowledge through
induction and deduction:
the hypothetical-deductive
method

Unified science (methodological monism) ... Mathematical physics

becomes the ideal science
Theory-reduction and logical analysis are seen as tools for unified science

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more

specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down"
approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific
hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we
collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately
leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a
confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific

observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally,
we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please note that it's
"bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the
bartender says to customers when he's trying to close for the
night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations
and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate
some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up
developing some general conclusions or theories.

4. Axiology
is the study of quality or value.
It is often thought to include ethics and aesthetics philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value and sometimes it is held to lay the groundwork for these fields,
and thus to be similar to value theory and meta-ethics.

Ethics
Ethics is the study of moral value, right and wrong.
Ethics is involved with placing value to personal
actions, decisions, and relations. Important ethical
issues today include abortion, sexual morality, the
death penalty, euthanasia, pornography, and the
environment.

Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty. It attempts to
address such issues as:
What is art?
What is the relationship between beauty and art?
Are there objective standards by which art can be
judged?

The Others Branch of Philosophy

Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of History
Philosophy of Language
Philosophy of Law
Philosophy of Mathematics
Philosophy of Mind
Philosophy of Politics
Philosophy of Religion
Philosophy of Science
Other Subfields
Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Mathematics,
Philosophy of Medicine, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy of
Linguistics, Philosophy of Criticism, Philosophy of Culture, etc

The Reason to Study Philosophy

Most philosophers would agree that one of the great benefits of
philosophy is that it challenges us to think critically about our
beliefs and to justify them with good arguments.
In this way, philosophy forces us to think clearly and precisely and
to express our ideas in the same way.
The development of critical thinking skills that is achieved
through the study of philosophy is something that can help all of
us to make better decisions in many aspects of our lives.
We can benefit personally because we will make better judgments
about what is in our own long-term self-interest.

The Uses of Philosophy

General Problem Solving. The study of philosophy enhances, in
a way no other activity does, one's problem-solving capacities.

Communication Skills. Philosophy also contributes uniquely to

the development of expressive and communicative powers.
Persuasive Powers. Philosophy provides capacities can
be
developed not only through reading and writing in philosophy, but
also through the philosophical dialogue,

Writing Skills. Philosophy teaches interpretive writing

through its examination of challenging texts, comparative
writing through emphasis on fairness to alternative positions.

Philosophy of Sciences
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and
justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications.
It has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of the
scientific method that can decisively serve to distinguish science
from non-science.
Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the
borders are.
There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have
broad
consensus among published philosophers of science and within the
scientific community at large.

What is science?
Knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or
the operation of general laws especially as obtained and
tested through scientific ethod
Such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with
the physical world and its phenomena : Natural Science
(Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary)

The issue of knowledge is important in both science and

philosophy. A measure of quality of knowledge is truth.

Knowledge and Science

Knowledge (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as
i.

facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through

experience or education; the theoretical or practical
understanding of a subject,

ii. what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and

information or
iii. awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or
situation.
iv. Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief".
There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge
presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous
competing theories.

Science (from the Latin scientia, 'knowledge')

is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method,
as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such
research.

Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to

differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of
scientific research to specific human needs, though the two are
often interconnected.
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:
Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena
(including biological life), and
Social sciences, which study human behavior and
societies.

Source of Reliable Knowledge

Experience, Everyone is familiar with experience as a source
of reliable knowledge.
Reason, Reason is a source of knowledge based on logic.
Authority, How does a person become an authority?
Generally, authority is bestowed upon a person by other
people.

Revelation and Intuition, Revelation is generally

considered to be a direct and immediate insight into
"truth" or "reality" from a source greater than
ourselves
Common Sense/Truth, Common sense is a very popular
source of reliable knowledge among many people.

Scientific Methods
Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating
phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting
and integrating previous knowledge.

It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable

evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, the collection
of data through
observation and experimentation, and the
formulation and testing of hypotheses.

Scientific Methods
1. Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask
a question about something that you observe: How, What,
When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question
it must be about something that you can measure, preferably
with a number.

2. Do Background Research:

3. Construct a Hypothesis:

4. Test the Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment:

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

6. Communicate Your Results

The steps of the scientific

method are to:
Ask a Question
Do Background Research
Construct a Hypothesis
Test Your Hypothesis by
Doing an Experiment
Analyze Your Data
Draw a Conclusion
Communicate Your Results

PHILOSOPHY Of MEDICINE
Philosophy

Biomedical Science

Ontologi

Human being

Epistemologi

Psychological

Aksiologi

Transcedental

Gap Med Technology & Human Values

Existence
Values
Basic need

Philosophy of
medicine
The philosophy of medicine can be generally
defined as encompassing those issues in
epistemology, axiology, logic, methodology and
metaphysics generated by or related to medicine

PHILOSOPHY in
MEDICINE
Though medicine and philosophy have been intertwined
throughout their histories, systematic philosophical reflection
on medicine began only in the 19th century.
There was a widening gulf between technology and human
values, ironically most manifest in a field devoted to the study
and care of individual human beings.
As a result, philosophy of medicine in its earliest years focused
largely on concrete MEDICAL ETHICS questions involving
new medical technology, such as euthanasia, human cloning,
artificial insemination, etc.

More recently, philosophy of medicine broadened its

focus to address public policy issues on the distribution
and financing of health care, epistemological issues about
the attainment, growth and certainty of medical
knowledge, and metaphysical issues about causality,
personal identity and spirituality in medicine.
Those other pursuits may benefit from exercises of this
sort, though even the most subtle of metaphysical insights
is bound to leave value judgments in medicine a matter
of drawing well-educated, well-intentioned lines through
painfully gray areas of human lives.

Medicine seeks to understand what it is

to be human.
The primary tool medicine has developed
for obtaining this knowledge has been
science, which has been spectacularly
successful in many respects.
"The human" is very complex, however,
and perhaps there are aspects of us that
science cannot easily reach. Medical
humanities seek to bring other sources of
human knowledge to medicine,
MEDICAL
particularly medical
education.
HUMANITY
(HUMANIORA)

Medicine
Online Medical Dictionary http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/

A scientifically-based discipline dedicated

to the prevention and treatment of
disease and injury.
MedlinePlus Medical Dictionary
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/mplusdictionary.html

the science and art dealing with the

maintenance of health and the
prevention, alleviation, or cure of
disease

Interpretations of the Philosophy of Medicine

Speculative medicine as the attempt to discover the
basic
philosophical principles that lie behind the practice of
medicine.
Logic of medicine brings togeteher
attempts to
clarify the character of scientific reasoning in
medicine.
Philosophy of medicine as a subspeciality of
philosophy of
science.
Other explorations of philosophical issues
that
have special salience in medicine, e.g.
bioethics stands in this
division
(Tr Engelhardt JR, KWM Wildes. Encyclopedia of Bioethics, 3rd ed, 3 vol. Pp. 1738-9)

Central Concepts of Medicine

Health-disease distinction.
Basic principles are
(i) existence of some norms
and (ii) possibility to modify abnormal situations. Here
is a lot of issues from natural sciences and
psychology.
The therapeutic relationship.
Ideal situation would be that human relations are
symmetrical but disease makes them clearly
asymmetrical. Here is a lot of issues from psychology
and social sciences.

 Health a state of optimal physical, mental, social

wellbeing and spiritual, and not merely the
absence of
disease and infirmity
disease any deviation from or interruption of the
normal structure or functions of any part,
organ, or
system (or combination of thereof) of
the body that is
manifested by a characteristic
set of symptoms and signs
and whose etiology, pathology, and prognosis may be known
or
unknown.
Dorlands Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 28th ed., p. 736

Scientific/Modern & Alternative

medicine
The scientific (conventional) medicine is grounded on scientific
knowledge and methods. The health care systems in the
developed countries are build up on the basis of the scientific
medicine and it is accepted and cultivated in medical faculties.
Alternative medicine is a vague term which covers numerous
isolated practicies, e.g. Homeopathy, anthroposophical
medicine, yoga, biofeedback, etc.

The human body is composed of multiple

interacting and self regulating
physiological systems including
biochemical
and neuroendocrine
feedback loops
The behaviour of any individual is
determined partly by an internal set of
rules based on past experience and
partly by unique and adaptive
responses to new stimuli from the
environment
The web of relationships in which

The humanities are those academic disciplines

which study the human condition using methods
that are largely analytic,
critical, or speculative,
as distinguished from the mainly
empirical
approaches of the natural and social sciences.
(wikipedia)

Medical humanities is an area of academic

study worth
considering if have interests in any
of the varied
subjects
it includes or if you have
a reflective approach to
medicine.
There are enormous opportunities for
developing both as
a practitioner and as an
academic, while career opportunities in this area are
likely to increase as more
medical education
incorporates humanities elements.

HUMANITIES IN MEDICINE
1. To increase understanding of the human
condition
study of the humanities may be integrated into
medicine
by means of new and as yet little
understood pathways
2. To expose students to the critical analysis of
ideas
3. To make more allowance for individual
differences
4. To provide pockets of expertise and lifelong
interests

omplexity and Clinical Care

(BMJ 2001;323:685-688)

Biological and social systems are

inherently complex, so it is
hardly
surprising that few if any human
illnesses can be said to have a single
"cause" or "cure."
A complex adaptive system is a
collection of individual agents with
freedom to act in ways that are not
always totally predictable, and whose
actions are interconnected so that the
action of one part changes the context
for other agents.

ntegrative Medicine
Integrative Medicine has been defined by the
National Center for
Complementary and Alternative
Medicine as practices that
combine "mainstream
medical therapies and CAM therapies
for which
there is some high-quality scientific evidence of
safety and effectiveness"
Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)
is an umbrella
term under which various forms of
non-traditional, non-Western medicine and healing
fall.
Alternative Medicine: practices used in place of
conventional
medical treatments, often
incorporating spiritual, metaphysical, or religious
underpinnings, non-European
medical traditions,
or newly-developed approaches to healing

Integrative medicine (IM) combines the discipline of

modern
science with the wisdom of ancient
healing.
For people living with chronic or life-threatening
illness, it
can transform the physical, emotional, and
spiritual
dimensions of their lives.
IM may also be valuable to those who are not ill but
wish to
increase self-awareness, enhance wellbeing, and help prevent health-related problems.
A multi-disciplinary approach to medicine provides the
maximum therapeutic benefit.
AAIM's advocacy for broader treatment options
facilitates a bond between integrative and Western
medicine.