Environmental Impacts of

Coal Conversion Technologies

DR. RIZWAN HAIDER

Coal Liquefaction
Production of Liquid Fuels from Coal using a Variety of
Industrial Processes
The chemical objectives of coal liquefaction are;
Reduction in the Effect of Weak Bonds and thus Separation of Fairly
Larger Units of Coal Structure into Smaller Units
Decomposition of Key Aromatic-Aliphatic, Aromatic-Aromatic and a
Variety of Carbon-Heteroatom Bonds within the Coal to form Smaller
Fragments
Increasing the H/C Ratio to produce and low sulphur, ash free liquid
product that is comparable to crude oil, gasoline or even heavy oil
bitumen

Process Options
Four Categories;
1.

Pyrolysis

2.

Solvent Extraction

3.

Catalytic Liquefaction

4.

Indirect Liquefaction

Environmental Factors
Environmental factors, including the potential quantity and the
composition of the pollutants, in addition to those compounds in the
fuel stream recognized as mutagens that are initially present in
internal process and utility streams, are a necessary consideration in
the operation of fossil fuel conversion plants.
Laboratory and bench-scale operations may not provide a true
picture of the generation of pollutants.
But it is essential that the methods for treating effluent streams to
remove pollutants and the types of equipment used for
environmental control must be part of the design and operation of
any potential coal liquefaction procedure.

Environmental Risks
Gaseous Emissions
The major type of air pollution control in coal liquefaction processes is
aimed at desulphurizing the gases generated during the coal
conversion process to make the fuels environmentally acceptable.
The removal of acid gases is achieved by the use of a physical solvent
process that removes them from the main stream, after which a
selective regeneration process can be used to release a stream of
hydrogen sulphide.
The hydrogen sulphide stream is sent to the sulphur recovery plant,
where it is oxidized to elemental sulphur.

Prospective Emissions from

Coal Liquefaction Processes
Source

Emissions

Coal Storage and Pretreatment

Dust, Particulates, Trace Elements

Preheater,
Liquefaction
Preheater, Particulates, Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxides
Hydrogen Generation, Hydro-treating,
and Solid Liquids Separation
Product Fractionation

Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxides, Hydrocarbon Vapours

Catalyst Regeneration

Nickel and Metal Carbonyls, Carbon Monoxide,

Sulphur Compounds, Organics

Process Effluents Gas Purification

Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbonyl Sulphide, Carbon

Disulphide, Hydrogen Cyanide, Carbon Monoxide,
Carbon Dioxide, Light Hydrocarbons, Mercaptans,
Thiophenes

Product Storage

Hydrocarbon Vapours, Ammonia

Valves, Fitting Leaks

Acid Gases

Environmental Risks
Aqueous Effluents
Major contaminants are ammonium sulphide, phenols, cresols,
xylenols, and thiocyanates;
Wastewater treatment is a combination of processes for the
treatment, recycling and discharge of aqueous effluents

Liquid Waste Streams from Coal Liquefaction

Processes
Source

Waste Stream

Coal Pile Runof

Particulates, Trace Metals

Hydrogen Generation

Sour or Foul Wastewater

Acid Gas Removal

Hydrogen Sulphide, Cyanides, Phenols

Ammonia Recovery

Dissolved Ammonia

Phenol Recovery

Dissolved Phenols, Cresylics

Spent Reagents and Sorbents

Sulphides, Sulfates, Trace Metals, Dissolved and

Suspended Solids, Ammonia, Phenols, Tars, Oil,
Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbon Oxides

Leachates
from
Gasifier
Ash, Trace Elements and Organics
Desulphurization Sludge, Bio-sludge,
and Spent Catalysts

Environmental Risks
Solid Wastes
A coal liquefaction plant generates three main types of solid waste
materials;
Ash and Slag from the Reactors
Sludge from Various Wastewater Treatment Units
Spent Catalysts from Catalytic Units

The possibility of trace materials leaching from the ash into ground or
surface waters must also be given attention

Solid Waste Streams from Coal

liquefaction Processes
Source

Waste Stream

Coal Pretreatment

Slag, Trace Minerals

Gasification

Ash, Sulphides, Thiocyanate, Ammonia, Organics,

Minerals

Steam and Power Generation

Ash, Minerals, Trace Elements

Filter Cake, Excess Residues from Ash, Minerals, Trace Elements, Absorbed Heavy
Solid-Liquid Separation
Hydrocarbons
Spent Catalyst from Hydro-treating

Metals, Absorbed Organics, Sulphur Compounds

Spent Catalysts from Shift Conversion, Metals, Absorbed Organics Sulphur Compounds
Synthesis, and Sulphur Recovery
Sludges from Waste Treatment and Trace Elements, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,
Product Purification
Slag from Hydrogen Generation

Trace Metals, Sulphides, Ammonia, Organics,

Phenols, Minerals

Health Effects of the Products/By-Products

of Liquefaction
Constituent

Source

Efect
INORGANIC

Ammonia

Gas Liquor

Respiratory Edema,
Asphyxia, Death

Carbon Disulphide

Concentrated Acid Gas

Nausea, Vomiting,
Convulsions

Carbon Monoxide

Coal Lockhopper Vent Gas

Headache, Dizziness,
Weakness, Vomiting, Death

Hydrogen Sulphide

Coal Lockhopper Vent Gas,

Concentrated Acid Gas,
Catalyst Regeneration OfGas

Coma and death may occur

within a few seconds

Nickel Carbonyl

Catalyst Regeneration OfGas

Highly Toxic, Irritation,

Lung Edema,

Trace Elements

Bottom and Fly Ash, Solid

Element Specific

Health Effects of the Products/By-Products

of Liquefaction
Constituent

Source

Efect
ORGANIC

Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons

Evaporative Emission from

Product Storage

Most are not toxic

Aromatic Amines

Coal Lockhopper Vent Gas

Cyanosis,
Methemoglobinemia,
Vertigo, Headache,

Single Ring Aromatics Gas Liquor, Coal Lockhopper

Vent Gas

Irritation, Vomiting,
Convulsions

Aromatic Nitrogen
Heterocyclics

Skin and Lung Irritants

Gas Liquor, Coal Lockhopper

Vent Gas

Coal Gasification
Coal gasification offers one of the most versatile methods to convert
coal into electricity, hydrogen, and other valuable energy-related
products.
Gasification of coal can produce synthesis gas (syngas) not only from
coals having a wide range of heat values but also from low-value
carbon feedstocks such as petroleum coke, high-sulfur fuel oil,
municipal wastes, and biomass.
This flexibility increases the economic value of these resources and
lowers costs by providing industry with a broader range of feedstock
options.

Coal Gasification
The gas produced by gasification can contain one or more of
contaminants such as ash, char, alkali metals, nitrogen compounds,
polynuclear aromatic compounds, tar, sulfur-containing compounds
(including hydrogen sulfide), and (on occasion) chlorine-containing
compounds.
The identity and amount of these contaminants depend on the
gasification process and the type of coal.

Coal Gasification
Conventional gas-cleaning systems are generally the technology of
choice for tar removal from the product gas. However, scrubbing
cools the gas and produces an unwanted waste stream. Removal of
the tar by catalytically cracking the larger hydrocarbons reduces or
eliminates this waste stream, eliminates the cooling inefficiency of
scrubbing, and enhances the product gas quality and quantity.
Cogasification of coal with biomass results (depending on the type of
biomass) in a change in the composition of the emissions as the ash
may contain higher proportions of heavy metals. A major concern
with these feedstocks is the potential for heavy metals to leach into
the environment following ash disposal.

Coal Gasification
Conventional gas-cleaning systems are generally the technology of
choice for tar removal from the product gas. However, scrubbing
cools the gas and produces an unwanted waste stream. Removal of
the tar by catalytically cracking the larger hydrocarbons reduces or
eliminates this waste stream, eliminates the cooling inefficiency of
scrubbing, and enhances the product gas quality and quantity.
Co-gasification of coal with biomass results (depending on the type
of biomass) in a change in the composition of the emissions as the
ash may contain higher proportions of heavy metals. A major
concern with these feedstocks is the potential for heavy metals to
leach into the environment following ash disposal.

Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

An in-situ coal conversion pathway
Accessing coal resources that are either uneconomic to work
by conventional open cut or underground coal mining
methods, or are inaccessible due to depth, geology or
mining/safety considerations

Environmental Advantages
No mining issues;
No surface ash management
Smaller footprint for surface facilities
Fewer particulates, NOx, SOx
Good coincidence between sites for carbon storage and UCG

Environmental Risks
Ground Water
The most significant risk related to UCG is the ground water
contamination.
Production of a number of compounds in coal seam including
Phenols
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Benzene
Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia
Sulphides

Migration of these compounds from gasification zone result in the

contamination of surrounding ground water

Environmental Risks
Surface Water
The gas solution produced by UCG contains a component of liquid or
vaporized water (Produced water) which is removed from the gas
before the gas is combusted in a power plant.
This water contains residual hydrocarbons,
phenols and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

benzenes,

Such liquid streams are expected to be fully treatable.

possibly

Environmental Risks
Subsidence
Subsidence is the sinking or lowering of a surface region relative to the
surrounding region.
In general, UCG subsidence results in height decrease equivalent to one-third of
the vertical thickness of the coal seam and would only affect land directly
above the gasified coal seam.
The magnitude and characteristics of subsidence depends on many factors
including;

Seam Depth

Rock Stiffness

Yield Strength

Disposition of the Seam

Stress Resulting from Gasification

Environmental Risks
Subsidence
Subsidence typically results in a uniform lowering of the region as
opposed to abrupt potholes.
The primary concern with subsidence is the effect it can have on rerouting surface waters, and local impacts on shallow aquifers and
infrastructure like roads and pipelines.
In general, subsidence appears to be a site-specific issue. With proper
site selection and operational management, it should be possible to
avoid significant impacts to surface waters, road and industry
infrastructure and buildings by avoiding regions most sensitive to
surface level changes.

Environmental Risks
Operational Risk
Proper site selection and appropriate operation management practices
are essential to reduce the risk of serious environmental impacts.
Operational risks may include;
Catastrophic Failure Scenario: This may happen because of catastrophic
groundwater contamination in terms of the influx of the water toward the
gasification zone, thus resulting in the reduction of operational efficiency.
This can, eventually, lead to groundwater contamination as well. Likewise,
during tests in Spain in the 1990s, technical problems occurred when
attempting to restart a UCG operation that had been shut down. A
malfunction in the ignition system and failure of the temperature
measurement system resulted in the accumulation of methane gas
underground, causing an explosion that damaged injection well.

Environmental Risks
Operability: UCG is much more difficult to control than conventional
gasification as many of the variables (rate of water influx, distribution of
the reactants in the gasification zone, growth rate of cavity) can not be
controlled. The pressure in the underground gasification zone is primarily
controlled by the rate of air/oxygen injection and the corresponding rate of
extraction.

Many serious environmental risks can occur if UCG projects are not
properly designed or carefully operated.

Environmental Risks
Air Quality
The majority of air quality concerns associated with UCG result from
syngas combustion.
With UCG, there are essentially two categories of non-GHG air emissions;
Criteria Air Contaminants: Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Dioxide, Particulate Matter
Volatile Trace Elements: Mercury, Arsenic, Selenium

UCG offers some inherent air emission benefits relative to conventional

coal. During UCG, a significant portion of volatile trace elements like
mercury, arsenic and selenium remain in the underground cavity. In coal
combustion, however, these compounds must be recovered from the flue
gas at relatively higher cost.

Environmental Risks
Land Use Impacts
UCG land use constitutes a series of wells drilled into a coal seam with
connecting roads and pipelines on the surface as well as any surface
facilities required to process the syngas.
UCG operators must perform a thorough assessment of the underground
environment at the selected site, including geology, hydrogeology and
rock mechanics.
The tools for this assessment may include;
Geological Mapping
Core Samples and Analysis
3-D Seismic Surveys
Aquifer Pressure/Hydrogeological Modelling

Environmental Risks
Land Use Impacts
UCG is often compared to coal mining and favoured for its decreases
land impacts; however, it should be noted that two technologies are
not competing for the same reserves of coal.
UCG operations are targeted at deeper sections of coal seams that
are otherwise un-mineable. The land benefits of UCG would only be
realized if replacing or avoiding the need for new coal mining
facilities.