MICROCONTROLLER

What is a microprocessor?
The microprocessor is the integration of a
number of useful functions. These functions are:
The ability to execute a stored set of instructions
to carry out user defined tasks.
General-purpose microprocessor.
Act as CPU for Computers.
No RAM, ROM, I/O on CPU chip itself
Example Intels x86, Motorolas 680x0

CPU
GeneralPurpose
Microprocessor

Data Bus

RAM

ROM

I/O
Port

Timer

Serial
COM
Port

Address Bus

What is Microcontroller?
Microcontroller is a device which integrates a
number of the components of a microprocessor
system onto a single microchip.
So a microcontroller combines onto the same
microchip :
The CPU core
Memory (both ROM and RAM)
Some parallel digital I/O

Example Motorolas 6811, Intels 8051, Zilogs Z8

and PIC 16X,ATMEL 89S51,52 etc

Microprocessor vs Micro-controllers
Microprocessors
High end of market where performance matters
High power dissipationhigh cost
Need peripheral devices to work
Mostly used in microcomputers.

Microcontollers
Targeted for low end of market where performance
does not matter
Low power dissipation low cost
Memory plus I/O devices, all integrated into one
chip
Mostly used in embedded systems

Embedded Systems
Embedded system means the processor is
embedded into that application.
An embedded product uses a microprocessor or
microcontroller to do one task only.
In an embedded system, there is only one
application software that is typically burned into
ROM.
Example printer, keyboard, video game player

Criteria in Choosing a Microcontroller

1. Meeting the computing needs of the task
efficiently and cost effectively
Speed, the amount of ROM and RAM, the number
of I/O ports and timers, size, packaging, power
consumption
Cost per unit
2.Availability of software development tools
assemblers, debuggers, C compilers, emulator,
simulator, technical support
3.Wide availability and reliable sources of the
microcontrollers.

23

Introduction to Microcontroller
The microcontroller is a very common component in
modern electronic systems. Its use is so widespread that it
is almost impossible to work in electronics without coming
across it. Microcontroller are used in a wide number of
electronic systems such as:
Engine management systems in automobiles.
Keyboard of a PC.
Electronic measurement instruments (such as digital
multimeters, frequency synthesisers, and oscilloscopes)
Printers,Mobile phones.
Televisions, radios, CD players, tape recording
equipment.

 Security alarm systems, fire alarm systems, and

building services systems.
Special-purpose Applications.

Features of 8051
ROM
- 4K bytes
RAM
- 128 bytes
Timer
- 2
I/O pins
- 32
Serial port
- 1
Interrupt sources - 6
8051 is based on CISC architecture.
It is based on Harvard architecture. So, it has
separate program and data memory.

Comparison of 8051 Family Members

Features
ROM
RAM
Timers
I/O pins
Serial port
Interrupt Sources
Part no
AT89C51
AT89LV51
AT89C1051
AT89C2051
AT89C52
AT89LV52

8051
8052
4K
8K
128
256
2
3
32
32
1
1
6
8
8051 from Atmel

ROM RAM I/O pins Timers Interrupt Vcc Packaging

4K 128
32
2
6
5V
40
4K 128
32
2
6
3V
40
1K 64
15
1
3
3V
20
2K 128
15
2
6
3V
20
8K 128
32
3
8
5V
40
8K 128
32
3
8
3V
40
C in the part no indicates CMOS

8031
0K
128
2
32
1
6

Architecture
Based on the instruction set used:
CISC
RISC

CISC
Complex Instruction Set Controller.
It invariably employ a microcode for decoding the
instructions and generate the necessary control
signals for performing the intended operation.
When an instruction is fetched from memory, it is
compared with the existing bit pattern, when match
is found it generates the associated control signals
to ALU and registers.

It takes good amount of time to decode the

meaning of complex instructions which perform
more than one operation.
Also microcode requires more number of
transistors that are used in fabricating the CISC
architecture based processors.

RISC
Reduced Instruction Set Controller.
These are fast at numerical computations required
in science, graphics and engineering applications.
The total number of transistors used for the design
of RISC is half the number used in CISC.
This reduced number of transistors reduces the
power consumption.

Computer Architecture
Depending on how external memory is connected to
the processors:
Von-Neumann machine.
Harvard machine.
Von-Neumann machine
It has 3 hardware subsystems; a CPU, a main
memory system and an I/O system.
It uses stored program concept i.e., the program
and data are stored in the same memory unit.
It has a single path between the main memory
system and the control unit of the CPU. Because the
common path is used to access both the program as
well as the data, there is possibility of congestion on
the bus. This situation is called Von Neumann

Harvard machine
It uses separate memories for storing the program
and data.
To connect these separate memories, it uses a
separate set of address, data and control lines.
As separate memories and buses are used,
simultaneous access to the memory is possible
without any congestion over the bus, which in turn
increases the performances.
It increases the cost of the system as separate
memories & separate buses are used.

Block Diagram of 8051

External interrupts
Interrupt
Control

On-chip
ROM for
program
code

Timer/Counter

On-chip
RAM

Timer 1
Timer 0

CPU

OSC

Bus
Control

4 I/O Ports

P0 P1 P2 P3

Address/Data

Serial
Port

TxD RxD

Counter
Inputs

Registers in 8051
In CPU, registers are used to store information
temporarily. That information could be a byte of data
to be processed, or an address pointing to the data
to be fetched. 8051 have 8-bit registers
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
MSB

LSB

The most widely used registers are A

(accumulator), B, R0-R7,DPTR (Data Pointer), PC
(Program Counter). All the registers except DPTR
and the program counter are 8 bits. DPTR and PC
are 16 bits.

DPTR

PC

Some 8051 16-bit Registers

Some 8051 8-bit Registers

Program Counter (PC)

PC points to the address of the next
instruction to be executed. As the CPU fetches the
opcode from the program ROM, the PC is
incremented to point to the point to the next
instruction. This means that the 8051 can access
program address 0000-FFFFH, a total of 64Kbytes of
code. It is also called instruction pointer

Flag Bit
8051 has a flag register to indicate arithmetic
conditions such as carry bit. The flag register of
8051 is called Program Status Word (PSW) register.

PSW (Program Status Word) Register

CY
AC
F0
RS1
RS0
OV
--P

PSW.7
PSW.6
PSW.5
PSW.4
PSW.3
PSW.2
PSW.1
PSW.0

RS1
0
0
1
1

Carry Flag
Auxiliary Carry Flag
Available to the user for general purpose
Register Bank selector bit 1
Register bank selector bit 0
Overflow flag
User-definable bit
Parity flag.(odd/even no of 1 bit in the accumulator)

RS0
0
1
0
1

Register bank
0
1
0
1

Address
00H-07H
08H-0FH
10H-17H
18H-1FH

Its an 8 bit register.

Although it is an 8 bit register, only 6 bits of it are
used.The two unused bits are user definable flags.
Four bits are called conditional flags, they
indicate some conditions that result after an
instruction is executed.
These 4 are CY (carry), AC (Auxiliary Carry), P
(Parity) and OV (Over Flow).
The bits PSW.3 and PSW.4 are designated as RS0
and RS1, respectively are used to change the bank
registers.

CY flag:- This flag is set when there is a carry out

from the D7 bit. This flag bit is affected after an 8-bit
addition or subtraction.
AC flag :- If there is a carry from D3 to D4 during
ADD or SUB operation, this bit is set; otherwise
cleared.
P flag :- It reflects the number of 1s in the A
(accumulator) register only. If A register contains an
odd number of 1s, then P=1.If its even, then P=0.
OV Flag :- This is set whenever the result of a signed
number operation is too large, causing the high
order bit to overflow into sign bit.

Examples:
1)38h+2Fh=67
0001 1100
+0010 1111
0110 0111
CY=0no carry beyond D7.
AC=1carry from D3 to D4.
P=1 since accumulator has an odd number of 1s.

8051 register banks and stacks

7F
Scratch Pad RAM
30
2F
20
1F

Bit-Addressable RAM
Register Bank 3

18
17
10
0F
08
07
00

Register Bank 2
Register Bank 1(Stack)
Register Bank 0

8051 register banks and stacks

128 bytes of RAM
Address range from 00-7Fh
128bytes are divided into 3 different groups.

and

32 bytes (00h-1Fh)Register banks

stacks.

16bytes (20h-2Fh) bit addressable

read/write
memory.
80bytes (30h-7Fh)scratch pad area.

Register banks in 8051

32 bytes are set for register banks and stack.32
bytes are divided into 4 banks of registers in which
each bank has 8 registers, R0-R7.
RAM location
00-07
08-0F
10-17
18-1F

Register bank
0
1
2
3

Stack in 8051
It is a section of RAM.
Stack is used to store information temporarily.
The information could be data or address.
CPU needs this storage area since there are only a
limited number of registers.

How stack is accessed?

Since stack is a section of RAM, there must be
register inside the CPU to point to it.
The register used to access the stack is called
Stack Pointer (SP).
SP is 8 bits wide. It can take values 00-FFh.
When powered up SP contains value 07.
Storing of a CPU register in stack is called PUSH
and pulling the contents is called POP.

Pin description of 8051

P1.0
P1.1
P1.2
P1.3
P1.4
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
RST
(RXD)P3.0
(TXD)P3.1
(INT0)P3.2
(INT1)P3.3
(T0)P3.4
(T1)P3.5
(WR)P3.6
(RD)P3.7
XTAL2
XTAL1
GND

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

8051
(8031)

40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21

Vcc
P0.0(AD0
P
) 0.1(AD1)
P0.2(AD2
P
) 0.3(AD3)
P0.4(AD4)
P0.5(AD5)
P0.6(AD6)
P0.7(AD7)
EA/VPP
ALE/PROG
PSEN
P2.7(A15)
P2.6(A14
)P2.5(A13
)P2.4(A12
)P2.3(A11)
P2.2(A10)
P2.1(A9)
P2.0(A8)

The voltage source is +5V.

RST pin 9
It is an input pin and is active high.
The high pulse must be high at least 2
machine cycles.
It is a power-on reset.
Upon applying a high pulse to RST, the
microcontroller will reset and all values in
registers will be lost.
Reset values of some 8051 registers

Reset value of 8051

Register
PC
ACC
B
PSW
SP
DPTR

Reset Value
0000
0000
0000
0000
0007
0000

RAM are all zero.

The 8051 has an on-chip oscillator but requires an

external clock to run it.
A quartz crystal oscillator is connected to inputs
XTAL1 and XTAL2.
It also needs 2 capacitors of 30pF value.
One side of each capacitor is connected to the
ground as shown below:
C2
XTAL2
30pF
C1
XTAL1
30pF
GND

Addressing Modes
The CPU can access data in various ways. The
data could be in a register or in memory or be
provided as an immediate value. These various ways
of accessing data are called addressing modes.
Total 5 addressing modes:
1)Immediate
2)Register
3)Direct
4)Register indirect
5)Indexed

Immediate addressing mode

Ex:
MOV A,#25h ;load 25h into A
Immediate data must be preceded by the pound
sign #.
Although DPTR is 16 bit, it can be accessed as two
8-bit registers, DPH and DPL.
Ex:
MOV DPTR, #2550h
is same as,
MOV DPL, #50h
MOV DPH,#25h

Register Addressing Modes

Ex:
MOV A, R0 ;copy contents of R0 into A

Direct addressing Mode

Ex:
MOV R0,40h
40h in R0
MOV 56h,A
location 56h.

;save the contents of RAM location

;save the contents of A in RAM

The # symbol distinguishes between the direct

addressing and immediate addressing mode.

Register Indirect addressing Mode

Here register is used as a pointer to the data.
If the data is inside CPU, only registers R0 and R1 are
used for this purpose.
When R0 and R1 are used as pointers, i.e., when they
hold the address of RAM, they must be preceded by @
sign.
Ex:
MOV A,@R0 ;move contents of RAM location whose
address is held by R0 into A.
MOV @R1,B ;move contents of B into RAM location
whose address is held by R1.

Indexed addressing mode

It is used in accessing data elements located in the
program ROM space of 8051.
Instructions for this purpose is
MOVC A,@A+DPTR.

Checksum byte
To ensure the data integrity of ROM contents every
system must perform the checksum byte calculation.
The process of checksum will detect any corruption
of the contents of ROM.
One of the causes of ROM corruption is current
surge, when the system is turned on or during
operation.

To ensure data integrity in ROM, the checksum

process uses what is called checksum byte.
Checksum byte is the extra byte that is tagged to
the end of a series of bytes of data.
To calculate checksum byte of a series of bytes
of data, the following steps can be taken:
1.Add the bytes together and drop the carries.
2.Take the 2s compliment of the total sum; this is
the checksum byte, which becomes the last byte of
the series.

Assume that we have 4bytes of hexadecimal

data:25H,62H,3FH and 52H
Solution
25H
+ 62H
+ 3FH
+ 52H
118H
Dropping the carry, we have 18H.
Take 2s Compliment of it is E8H.
Therefore the checksum byte is E8H.

Reasons for writing programs in C

instead of Assembly
It is easier and less time consuming to write in C
than Assembly.
C is easier to modify and update.
You can use available in-function libraries.
C code is portable to other microcontrollers with
little or no modification.

C data types for 8051

Unsigned char
8-bit datatype.
value range from 0-255(00-FFh).
Signed char
8-bit datatype.
D7 of D7-D0 represent sign(-ve or +ve).
We have 7 bits for value of signed number.
Range from -128 to 127.
Default is signed value.

Unsigned int
16bit datatype.
value in a range of 0-65535.
used to define 16-bit memory address.
8051 is 8-bit microcontroller, so int datatype take
2bytes of RAM.
Signed int
16 bit datatype.
Uses MSB (D15 of D15-D0) to represent sign(-ve or
+ve).
15 bit for magnitude.
Value range from -32768 to 32767.

Time Delay
There are two ways to create a time delay 8051:
1.Using a simple loop
2.Using the 8051 timers

8051 Timers
Both Timer 0 and Timer 1 are 16 bits wide.
Since the 8051 has an 8-bit architecture, each 16-bit
timer is accessed as 2 separate registers of low byte
and high byte.

Timer 0 Register
The 16-bit registers of Timer 0 are accessed as
low byte and high byte. The low byte is called TL0
(Timer 0 low byte) and the high byte register is called
TH0 (Timer 0 high byte). These registers can be
accessed like any other register, such as A,B,R0,R1,
etc.
TH0

TL0

D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D9 D8 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

Timer 1 register
Timer 1 is also 16 bit register, and its 16-bit
register is split into two bytes, referred to as
TL1(Timer 1 low byte) and TH1 (Timer 1 high byte).
These registers are accessible in the same way as
Timer 0.

TH1
D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D9

TH0
D8

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

TMOD (Timer mode) register

Both Timers 0 and 1 use the same register,
called TMOD, to set various timer operation modes.
TMOD is an 8-bit register in which the lower 4 bits
are set aside for Timer 0 and upper 4 bits for Timer 1.
In each case, the lower 2 bits are used to set
the timer mode and the upper 2 bits to specify the
operation.
MSB
GATE

C/T
Timer 1

M1

M0

GATE

C/T
M1
Timer 0

LSB
M0

GATE
Every timer has a means of starting
and stopping. Some do this by software, some by
hardware and some by both.
If GATE=0, if we use software for this purpose.
If GATE=1, if we use external hardware for this
purpose.

C/T
Used to select Timer/Counter operation.
Set (1)
Counter.
Cleared(0) Timer.

M1 & M2
These are modes bits used in
order to select the different operating modes of the
timer.
M1
0
0
1
1

M0 Mode Operating Mode

0
0
13-bit timer mode
1
1
16-bit timer mode
0
2
8-bit auto-reload
1
3
Split timer mode

TCON register
8-bit addressable register.
TR0 and TR1 flags used to turn on or turn off the
timer are part of TCON (Timer Control) register.
LSB

MSB
TF1

TR1

TF0

TR0
4

IE1
3

IT1
2

IE0

IT0

BIT SYMBOL
FUNCTION
TCON.7 TF1
Timer 1 overflow flag
TCON.6 TR1
Timer 1 run control bit
TCON.5 TF0
Timer 0 overflow flag
TCON.4 TR0
Timer 0 run control bit

Clock source for timer

The crystal frequency attached to
the 8051 is the source of the clock for the timer. The
frequency of the timer is always 1/12th the frequency
of crystal attached to 8051.

Mode 1
It is a 16-bit timer; it allows values of 0000 to
FFFFH to be loaded into timers registers TL and TH.
After TL and TH are loaded with 16-bit initial value,
the timer must be started by setting TR0 for timer 0
and TR1 for timer 1.
After the timer is started, it starts to count up. It
counts up until it reaches its FFFFH. When it rolls
over from FFFFH to 0000, it sets high a flag bit called
TF (timer flag).

Now stop the timer bit by clearing TR0 and TR1

respectively.
Each timer is having its own flag TF0 for T0 and
TF1 for T1.
After the timer reaches its limit and rolls over, in
order to repeat the process reload TH and TL with
original value and TF must be reset to 0.

Finding the values to be loaded into timer

1)Divide the desired time delay by 1.085micros.Take
the result as n.
2)Subtract n from 65536 (65536-n).
3)Convert the result to hex, where yyxx is the initial
hex value to be loaded into timers register.
4)Set TL=xx, TH=yy.

Example:
Assume that XTAL=11.0592 MHz.
We want 5ms delay
Solution:
(5ms / 1.085 micro sec) = 4608 clocks
(65536 4608) = 60928 = EE00H
Therefore, we have
TH=EE
TL=00

XTAL
Oscillator

/12

TH
TR

C/T=0

TL

TF goes high
When FFFF=0

TF
Overflow
flag

Mode 0
Its exactly similar to mode1 except that it is a 13 bit
timer instead of 16bit.
Hold values between 0000-1FFFH in TH and TL.
Therefore, when the timer reaches its maximum of
1FFFH it rolls over to 0000 and TF is raised.

Mode 2
8-bit timer allows values from 00-FFH to be loaded
to TH.
After TH is loaded with 8-bit value, the 8051 will
give a copy of it to TL.
Then the timer is started. After timer is started, it
starts count by incrementing the TL register.
It counts up until it reaches FF H. When it rolls from
FFH to 00H, TF is set; TF0 for timer 0 and TF1 for
Timer 1.
TL is reloaded automatically with the original value
kept by TH register.
To repeat the process, simply clear TF and let it go
without reloading the original value by programmer.
Here TH is unchanged. It holds the copy of the
original value.

XTAL
Oscillator

/12

TL

Overflow
flag

Reload

TR
C/T=0

TF

TH

TF goes high
When FF=0

Mode 3
Timer mode 3 is a split-timer mode.
When Timer 0 is placed in mode 3, it essentially
becomes two separate 8-bit timers. That is to say,
Timer 0 is TL0 and Timer 1 is TH0.
Both timers count from 0 to 255 and overflow back
to 0.

Counter
If C/T of TMOD is 1, it is counter, it takes its pulses
from outside the 8051.
The counter counts up as pulses are fed from T0
and T1.
In T0, P3.4 provides clock pulse and counter
counts up for each clock pulse coming from that pin.
For T1, each pulse coming in P3.5 makes the
counter count up.

Types of data transfer

Two ways of transferring data:
Parallel
Serial
In parallel data transfer, often 8 or more lines
(wire conductors) are used to transfer data to that is
only a few feet away.
Ex: printers, hard disk
Each uses cables with many wire strips.
Although in such cases a lot of data can be
transferred in a short amount of time by using many
wires in parallel, the distance cannot be great.

To transfer to a device located many meters away,

the serial method can be used.
In serial communication, the data is send one bit at
a time.

Basics of Serial Communication

If data is to be transferred on the telephone line, it
must be converted from 0s and 1s to audio tones,
which are sinusoidal shaped signal. This conversion
is performed by a peripheral device called as
MODEM=modulator/demodulator.
Serial data communications uses two methods
1.Synchronous method transfers a block
of data (character) at a time.
2.Asynchronous method transfers a
single byte at a time.

Half and Full duplex transmission

In data transmission if the data can be transmitted
and received, it is a duplex transmission.
Parallel Transfer
D0

Serial Transfer
Sender

Receiver

Sender

Receiver
D7

Simplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex

Transmitter

Receiver

Transmitter

Receiver

Receiver

Transmitter

Transmitter

Receiver

Receiver

Transmitter

Asynchronous serial communication

and data framing
Start and Stop bits
Asynchronous serial communication is widely
used for character-oriented transmission, while
block-oriented data transfer uses synchronous
method.
In asynchronous method, each character is
placed between start and stop bits. This is called
framing.
Start bit is always one bit and it is a low bit
Stop bit can be one or two bits and it is a high bit
space

stop
bit

Goes out last

0
D7

1
D0

start
bit

Goes out first

Data transfer rate

The rate of data transfer in serial data
communication is stated in bps (bits per second) or
called as baud rate.
Ex: IBM PC could transfer data at rates of 100 to
9600bps.
It must be noted that in asynchronous serial data
communication, the baud rate is generally limited to
100,000bps.

RS232 Standards
To allow compatibility among data communication
equipment made by various manufacturers, an
interfacing standard called RS232 was set by the
Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960.
Many types like RS232A,RS232B,RS232C

This standard is used in PCs and numerous types

of equipment.
This standard was set long before the advent of
TTL logic family, its input & output voltage levels are
not TTL compatible.
In RS232
While

1=(-3 to -25V)
0=(+3 to +25V)

For this reason to connect any RS232 to a MC

system we must use voltage converters such as
MAX232 to convert the TTL logic levels to the RS232
voltage levels, and vice versa.
MAX232 IC chips are commonly referred to as line
drivers.

Pin Description of RS232

Pin Description of MAX232

Baud Rate in the 8051

The 8051 transfers and receives data serially at
many different baud rates.
The baud rate in the 8051 is programmable. This is
done by Timer 1.
The 8051 divides the crystal frequency by 12 to get
the machine cycle frequency.
I.e. M/C Frequency = (11.0592MHz/12 = 921.6KHz)
The 8051 serial communication UART circuitry
divides the machine cycle frequency of 921.6KHz by
32 once more it is used by Timer 1 to set the baud
rate.
(921.6 / 32) = 28,800Hz this is the value used to
set the baud rate in Timer 1,Mode 2(8-bit autoreloaded mode).

Timer 1 TH1 Register Values for

Various Baud Rates
Baud Rate

TH1(Decimal)

TH1(Hex)

9600

-3

FD

4800

-6

FA

2400

-12

F4

1200

-24

E8

28,800 / 3 = 9600 where -3 = FD (hex) is loaded into

TH1

SBUF register
SBUF is an 8-bit register used for serial
communication in the 8051.
To transfer a byte of data via the TxD line, it must
be placed in the SBUF register.
Similarly, SBUF hold a byte of data when it is
received by the 8051s RxD line.
SBUF can be assed by any other register in 8051.
The moment a byte is written into SBUF, it is framed
with a start & stop bits & transferred serially via TxD
pin.
Similarly, When the bits are received serially via
RxD, the 8051 deframes it by eliminating the start
and stop bits, making a byte of data received, and
placing it in the SBUF.

SCON (Serial Control) register

It is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit,
stop bit, and data bits of data framing, among other
things.
SM0

SMI

SM0
SM1
SM2

SCON.7
SCON.6
SCON.5

REN

SCON.4

TB8
RB8
TI
RI

SCON.3
SCON.2
SCON.1
SCON.0

SM2

REN

TB8

RB8

TI

RI

Serial port mode specifier

Serial port mode specifier
Used for multiprocessor
communication. (make it as 0)
Set / Cleared by SW to enable /
disable reception.
Not widely used
Not widely used
Transmit interrupt flag.
Receive interrupt flag.

Make SM2, TB8, and RB8 = 0.

SM0 SM1
0
0
0
1
1
1

0
1

Serial Mode 0
Serial Mode 1,
8-bit data, 1 stop bit, 1 Start bit
Serial Mode 2
Serial Mode 3

We are not using 8051 in a multiprocessor

environment so make SM2 = 0.
REN (Receive Enable) = 1, it allows the 8051 to
receive data on the RxD pin of the 8051 also for
transferring the data through TxD.
REN = 0, receiver is disabled.

TB8(transfer bit 8) is used only for mode 2 & 3.

Make TB8 as 0.
RB8(receiver bit 8) in serial mode 1, this bits gets a
copy of stop bit when the 8-bit data is received.
TI (transmit interrupt) bit is set after transfer of 8bit of character.
RI (receive interrupt) bit is set after receiving of 8bit of character.

Doubling the baud rate of 8051

There are 2 ways to increase the baud rate of
data transfer in the 8051
1.Use a higher-frequency crystal
2.Change a bit in the PCON (Power Control) register

D7

SMOD

D0

---

---

---

GF1

GF0

PD

IDL

Baud rate for SMOD = 0

Machine cycle frequency
= 11.0592 MHz / 12 = 921.6 KHz
And
921.6 KHz / 32 = 28,800 Hz since SMOD = 0
Baud rate for SMOD = 1
Machine cycle frequency
= 11.0592 MHz / 12 = 921.6 KHz
And
921.6 KHz / 16 = 57,600 Hz since SMOD = 1

Baud rate comparison for SMOD = 0 &

SMOD = 1
SMOD = 1

SMOD = 0

TH1(Decimal)

TH1(Hex)

19,200

9,600

-3

FD

9,600

4,800

-6

FA

4,800

2,400

-12

F4

2,400

1,200

-24

E8

Interrupts Programming
A single microcontroller can serve several
devices. There are 2 ways to do that.i.e Interrupt and
Polling.

Interrupt Method
In this method, whenever any devices needs its
service, the device notifies the MC by sending it an
interrupt signal.
Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the MC
interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the
device. The program associated with the interrupt is
called interrupt service routine (ISR) or interrupt
handler.

Polling Method
In this method MC continuously monitors the
status of a given devices; when the status condition
is met it perform the service.
It is not a efficient use of MC
In interrupt method according to Priority the MC
will service.
In polling method cannot assign priority since it
checks all devices in a round-robin fashion.

Interrupt Service Routine

For every interrupt, there must be an interrupt
service routine (ISR), or Interrupt Handler.
When an interrupt is invoked, the microcontroller
runs a interrupt service routine.

For every interrupt , there Is a fixed location in

memory that holds the address of its ISR.
The group of memory location set aside to hold the
address of IS Rs is called the interrupt vector table.

Interrupt Vector Table for 8051

Interrupt
ROM Location (Hex)
Pin
Flag Clearing
Reset
0000
9
Auto
External HW Interrupt 0(INT0)
0003
P3.2(12)
Auto
Timer 0 Interrupt (TF0)
000B
Auto
External HW Interrupt 1(INT1)
0013
P3.3(13)
Auto
Timer 1 Interrupt (TF1)
001B
Auto
Serial COM Interrupt (RI &TI)
0023
Programmer
clear it

Steps to executing an interrupt

1.It finishes the instruction it is executing & saves
the address of the next instruction (PC) on the stack.
2.It also saves current status of all interrupts
internally (i.e. not on the stack)
3.It jumps to a fixed location in memory called
interrupt vector table that hold the address of the
interrupt service routine.
4.The MC gets the address of the ISR from the
interrupt vector table & jumps to it. It starts to
execute the interrupt service subroutine until it
reaches the last instruction of subroutine, which is
RETI (return from interrupt).

5.Upon executing the RETI instruction, MC return to

home by taking the address from stack by popping
the top 2 byte of the stack into the PC. Then it starts
to execute from that address.

Enabling & Disabling an Interrupt

Upon reset all interrupts are disabled (masked),
meaning that none will be responded to MC if
interrupt is activated.
So interrupt must be enabled by SW to be used by
MC.

Steps in Enabling an Interrupt

D7
EA
EA
--ET2
ES
ET1
EX1
ET0
EX0

D0
--IE.7
IE.6
IE.5
IE.4
IE.3
IE.2
IE.1
IE.0

ET2

ES

ET1

EX1

ET0

EX0

EA=0 (Disables), EA=1

(Enabled)
Reserved
Enables or Disables Timer 2 overflow or capture interrupt
Enables or Disables the serial port interrupt
Enables or Disables Timer 1 overflow interrupt
Enables or Disables External interrupt 1
Enables or Disables Timer 0 overflow interrupt
Enables or Disables External interrupt 0

Roll-Over Timer Flag and Interrupt

In polling TF, we have to wait until the TF is raised.
The problem with this method is that the MC is tied
down while waiting for TF to be raised, and cannot
do any thing else.
Using interrupts solves this problem and avoid
tying down the controller.

Programming Timer Interrupt

Programming External Hardware

Interrupts
Two External interrupt
INT0:Interrupt vector Table location 0003H
INT1:Interrupt vector Table location 0013H
It is enabled & disabled using the IE register.
There are 2 types of activation for hardware
interrupts.
1.Level Triggered
2.Edge Triggered

Level-Triggered Interrupt
In this mode, INT0 & INT1 pins are normally high
(just like all I /O port pins) & if a low level signal is
applied to them, it triggers the interrupt. This is
called as level triggered interrupt.
If the low level interrupt signal is not removed
before the ISR is finished it is interpreted as another
interrupt & the 8051 jumps to the vector table to
execute the ISR again.
Therefore to ensure the activation of the hardware
interrupt at the INTn pin, make sure that the duration
of the low level signals is around 4 machine cycles,
but not more.(INT0 have highest priority than INT1)

Edge-Triggered Interrupts
If we want to make INT0 & INT1 as edge triggered
interrupt we must program the bits of TCON register.
LSB

MSB
TF1

TR1

TF1

BIT SYMBOL
TCON.7 TF1
TCON.6 TR1
TCON.5 TF0
TCON.4 TR0
TCON.3
IE1
TCON.2
IT1
TCON.1
IE0
TCON.0
IT0

TR0
4

IE1
3

IT1
2

IE0

IT0

FUNCTION
Timer 1 overflow flag
Timer 1 run control bit
Timer 0 overflow flag
Timer 0 run control bit
External interrupt 1 edge flag
Interrupt 1 type control bit
External interrupt 0 edge flag
Interrupt 0 type control bit

IT0 & IT1 or bits D0 & D2 of the TCON register

determine whether the interrupt is level triggered or
edge triggered.
By default IT0 & IT1 is 0 means that it is a level
triggered interrupt.
When this pins become high (1) then it is a edge
triggered interrupt.
In edge triggered interrupt a high to low signal is
given to the interrupt pins to do the interrupt
function (Ex: LED).
If we want the interrupt function to be executed
again give a high to low signal to interrupt pin.

In level triggered interrupt as long as INTn is kept

at a low level the interrupt function (LED) is kept in
the on state.

But for edge triggered interrupt to turn on the LED

again the INTn pulse must be brought back high &
then forced low to create a falling edge to activate
the interrupt.

In edge triggered interrupt the external source

must be held high for at least one machine cycle to
ensure that the transition is seen by the
microcontroller.

Programming the Serial communication Interrupt

Setting Interrupt Priority table with the IP

Register
D7
---

D0
---

PT2

PS

PT1

PX1

PT0

PX0

Priority bit =1 assigns high priority. Priority bit=0 assigns low priority

----PT2
PS
PT1
PX1
PT0
PX0

IP.7
IP.6
IP.5
IP.4
IP.3
IP.2
IP.1
IP.0

Reserved
Reserved
Timer 2 priority bit
Serial port interrupt priority bit
Timer 1 interrupt priority bit
External interrupt 1 priority bit
Timer 0 interrupt priority bit
External interrupt 0 priority bit

Interrupt Programming in C
8051/8052 Interrupt Numbers in C
Interrupt

Name

Numbers used by 8051 C

External Interrupt 0

INT0

Timer Interrupt 0

TF0

External Interrupt 1

INT1

Timer Interrupt 1

TF1

Serial Communication

RI + TI

TF2

Timer 2 (8052 only)

LCD Interfacing
In recent years the LCD is finding widespread
use replacing LEDs (seven-segment LEDs or other
multisegment LEDs). This is due to the following
reasons.
The declining prices of LCDs.
The ability to display numbers, characters, and
graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs, Which are
limited to numbers and a few characters.
Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the
LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task of
refreshing the LCD.
Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

Block Diagram & Pin Description

There are two very important register inside the

LCD. The RS pin (Input pin) is used for their
selections as follows.
If RS=0,the instruction command code register is
selected, allowing the user to send a command such
as clear display, cursor at home, etc
If RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the
user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.
VSS = Ground
VCC = +5v Power supply

VEE = Power supply to control contrast

R / W (Input pin) = 0 for write & 1 for read
E (I /O pin) for enable
DB0 DB7 (I / O Pin)
Display capacity of 16 characters X 2 line,20 X 1,
20X2, 20X4, 40X2 etc..
The 8-bit data pin, D0 D7 are used to send
information to LCD or read the contents of the LCDs
internal registers.
To display letters & numbers, we send ASCII codes
for the letter A Z, a z & 0 9 to these pins while
making RS = 1.

LCD Command Codes

Code (Hex)
1
2
4
6
5
7
8
A
C
E
F
10
14
18
1C
80
C0
38

Command to LCD Instruction Register

Clear display screen
Return home
Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)
Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)
Shift display right
Shift display left
Display off, Cursor off
Display off, cursor on
Display on, Cursor off
Display on, Cursor on
Display on, Cursor blinking
Shift cursor position to left
Shift cursor position to right
Shift the entire display to the left
Shift the entire display to the right
Force cursor to beginning of 1st line
Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line
2 lines and 5x7 matrix

Keyboard Interfacing
VCC
4.7K
3

4.7K

D0
D1
D2
D3
Port 1
(Out)
Row

D3

D2

D1

D0

Port 2
(In)
Column

Keypad are the mostly used input devices of the

8051/52.Keypad is organized in a matrix of rows and
columns.
The MCU accesses both rows and columns
through ports; therefore, with two 8-ports, an 8X8
matrix of keys can be connected to a
microcontroller.
When a key is pressed, a row and a column make a
contact; otherwise, there is no connection between
rows and columns.
It is the function of program stored in the EPROM
of the microcontroller to scan the keys continuously,
identify, which one has been activated.

Grounding rows & reading the

columns
To detect the pressed key, the MC grounds all rows
by providing 0 to the output latch, then it reads the
columns. If the data read from the column is D3 D0
= 1111, no key has been pressed.
If no key has been pressed, reading the input port
will yield 1s for all columns since they are all
connected to high (VCC).
If all rows are grounded & a key is pressed, one of
the columns will have 0 since the key pressed
provides the path to ground.

If one of the columns bit has a zero (i.e. D0 to D3 =

1101) this means that a key press has occurred this
means a key in the D1 column has been pressed.
Then the MC start to identifying the key. starting up
with the top row, the MC ground it by providing a low
to row D0 only.
The MC read the columns if it is all 1s then no key
pressed in that row. so it check the 2nd row by
grounding it.

Interfacing to External Memory

When connecting multiple devices to a
microcontroller, the address and data lines of each
device were conventionally connected individually.
This would take up precious pins on the
microcontroller, result in a lot of traces on the PCB,
and require more components to connect everything
together. This made these systems expensive to
produce and susceptible to interference and noise.
To solve this problem, Philips developed Inter-IC
bus, or I2C, in the 1980s. I2C is a low-bandwidth,
short distance protocol for on board
communications.
All devices are connected through two wires: serial
data (SDA) and serial clock (SCL).

Figure 1: Sample I2C Implementation.

Regardless of how many slave units are attached to the I2C bus, there are only two signals connected to
all of them. Consequently, there is additional overhead because an addressing mechanism is required for
the master device to communicate with a specific slave device.

Because all communication takes place on only

two wires, all devices must have a unique address
to identify it on the bus. Slave devices have a
predefined address.

Theory of Operation
I2C has a master/slave protocol. The master
initiates the communication. The sequences of
events are:
The Master device issues a start condition. This
condition informs all the slave devices to listen on
the serial data line for instructions.
The Master device sends the address of the target
slave device and a read/write flag.
The Slave device with the matching address
responds with an acknowledgement signal.
Communication proceeds between the Master and
the Slave on the data bus. Both the master and
slave can receive or transmit data depending on
whether the communication is a read or write.

The transmitter sends 8-bits of data to the receiver

which replies with a 1-bit acknowledgement.
When the communication is complete, the master
issues a stop condition indicating that everything is
done.

Figure 2: I2CCommunication Protocol

Since there are only two wires, this protocol includes the extra overhead of an addressing
mechanism and an acknowledgement mechanism

Features
I2C has many features other important features worth mentioning. It
supports multiple data speeds:
standard (100 kbps),
fast (400 kbps) and
high speed (3.4 Mbps) communications.
Built in collision detection,
10-bit Addressing, Mutli-master support, Data broadcast (general call).

Benefits and Drawbacks

Since only two wires are required, I2C is well
suited for boards with many devices connected on
the bus. This helps reduce the cost and complexity
of the circuit as additional devices are added to the
system.
Due to the presence of only two wires, there is
additional complexity in handling the overhead of
addressing and acknowledgments. This can be
inefficient in simple configurations and a direct-link
interface such as SPI might be preferred.

(EEPROM) AT24C02A

ADC
ADC are among the most widely used devices for
data acquisition. Digital computers use binary
(discrete) values, but in the physical world
everything is analog (continuous). Temperature,
Pressure (wind or Liquid), humidity, & velocity are
few examples.
A physical quantity is converted into electrical
(voltage, current) signals using a device called a
transducer (Sensors).
Sensor converts the temperature, pressure etc..
Into its corresponding voltage (or current). like this
way ADC works.

An ADC has n-bit where n can be 8, 10, 12, 16 or

even 24 bits. The highest resolution ADC provides a
smaller step size, where step size is the smallest
change that can be discerned by an ADC.
Conversion time should be less.

Resolution Vs Step Size for ADC

N-bit

Number of Steps

Step Size (mV)

256

5 / 256 = 19.53

10

1024

5 / 1024 = 4.88

12

4096

5 / 4096 = 1.2

16

65563

5 / 65536 = 0.076

ADC0804 Chip
+5V

20
10K
POT

10K
150 pF

6
7
8

VCC

Vin (+)
Vin (-)
A GND
Vref / 2

19

CLK R

CLK in

1
2
10

CS
RD
D GND

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7

18
17
16
15
14

LEDs

13
12
11

WR 3
5
INTR

Normally
Open
START

Vref / 2 Relation to Vin Range (ADC0804)

Vref / 2 (V)

Vin (V)

Step size (mV)

0 to 5

5 / 256 = 19.53

2.0

0 to 4

4 / 255 = 15.62

1.5

0 to 3

3 / 256 = 11.71

1.28

0 to 2.56

2.56 / 256 = 10

Not connected

Read & write Timing for ADC0804

CS
WR

Note: CS is set to low for both RD & WR pulses

Data out

D0 D7
INTR
RD

Start conversion

End conversion