CHAPTER 2

FOUNDATION

Wind load
Wind load
Dead load

What is Substructure?
FOUNDATION=SUBSTRUCTURE
(The lowest portion of the building structure.
Extends from the bearing surface to the main
structure.)
Usually located below the ground level.
A foundation is a part of the structure which is
in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.
Foundations can be located at; below ground,
at ground level, or above ground level.

Shallow
Foundation

Deep Foundation

Main functions of the

foundations

To supports the weight of

structure and distribute the
load of the structure over a
greater area.
To transmit the load
uniformly under the
structure.
Anchors the structure to the
earth, providing a firm, level
and strong base over which
the superstructure may be
constructed.

Main functions of the

foundations

To avoid any settlement or

other movement that can
cause damage to any part of
the building (a stable
foundation should bear the
loads without sinking or
settling more than an inch at
the most).
To increase the stability of
the structure by preventing
its tilting or overturning
against winds, earthquakes
and uneven distribution of
live load (Lateral Stability).

Selection Criteria
Loading of the building,
big load need big
foundation such as raft
foundation or piling.
Types of soil such as
peat soil prefer piling or
deep foundation
Most economical but
capable to support
numbers of building or
storey (pad footing or
pilling?)

Selection Criteria
The loads that must be transferred from the
structure to the soil strata supporting it. This also
should evaluate the ability of the soil to support
the ultimate loads.
The capability of the structure that will safely
transfer the loads from the superstructure to the
foundation bed.
The possibility and extent of settlement of the soil
due to the presence of mines and quarries in the
vicinity.
The possibility of the underground water has
sulfates or other salts that can degrade the
foundation materials.

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
Soil Investigation (S.I) is needed to determine the
subsoil includes the soil type, strength, soil
structure, moisture conditions and the presence of
roots.
Purpose of S.I-determine the bearing capacity,
seasonal volume changes and other possible
ground movements.
Common methods obtaining soil samples;

trial pits,
boreholes,
window sampling and
dynamic probe test.

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
For more safety precaution use factor of
safety FOS = 3
Increase number of bore hole or sufficient
number of borehole so that the result of
the report is more accurate.
Choose the critical point load for borehole
Every end of the building
Supervise the S.I properly make sure no
mistake

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design

For the safety of the foundation

design use the lowest of bearing
capacity value.
The engineer must have good
enough data for the S.I such as
previous soil report, cutting or filling
area.
Engineer also must make sure the
original ground level and purposed
level or formation level while

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
The correct parameter is
important to prevent from
foundation failure that may
occur causing building
collapse. It will cause a big loss
of material and even peoples
life.
Highland TowersMalaysia
Shanghai-China

Overturning
residential
building

Types of Foundation
Shallow foundation
: Strip/Spread
Footings.
Pad
Footing/Foundatio
n.
Raft/Mat
Foundation.

Deep foundation
: End Bearing
Pile
Spun Pile.
Bored pile.Pile
Friction
Bakau pile
Micro pile.

SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS

Strip Foundation

Most suitable, economical type of

foundation for small building on
compact soil.
Strip foundation should be
build/construct on soil with high
bearing capacity.
This type of foundation is also
known as wall foundation or
continues spread footing
foundation.
Consist of continuous strip of steelreinforced concrete, from centrally
under load bearing walls.
The continuous strip serves as a
level base on which the wall is build
and the width is design to capable
to support the load without undue
compaction.

Strip Foundation
The greater the bearing capacity of the
subsoil, the less the width of the
foundation.
Width of strip foundations depends on the
bearing capacity of the subsoil and the
load on the foundations.
Types of strip foundations;
stepping strip,
wide strip and
narrow strip (trench fill or deep strip).

Characteristic of Spread/Strip
Footings
Low Cost
Ease of construction
For small-medium size structures
with moderate-good soil.
For large structures with
exceptionally good soil or shallow
bedrock.
Spread/strip footing may be built in
different shapes and sizes to
accommodate individual needs.

Types of spread footings based

on size and shape
No

Types of Spread Footings

Applicable

Square

for a single centrally-located column

Rectangular

when large moment load are present

Circular

for light standards, flagpoles etc

Continuous

for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

Combined

when columns are close together

Ring

for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

Strap (cantilever footing)

when very close to a property line/other structure

STEPPING STRIP
FOUNDATIONS

When strip foundation

used in sloping sitesstepped the foundation.
The full thickness of the
upper foundation should
overlap twice twice the
height of the step
(O=2xT), or 300 mm
whichever is greater.
The brickwork and
blockwork on the top of
the foundation should
tie in at the step to
avoid the needs of
cutting bricks/blocks
and to avoid the
possibility of reducing
the stability of the wall.

WIDE STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Figure 8: Wide
Strip Foundation

Wide strip foundations distribute loads over a larger

area and reducing the load per unit area on the
ground.
Wider strip foundation is most suitable for subsoil
with poor bearing capacity such as soft sandy clays.
Widening and deepening the concrete foundation (to
ensure the foundation does not shear)
uneconomical. Alternatively-form a strip of steelreinforce concrete for safe-economical wide strip

NARROW STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Also known as trench fill/deep strip

foundation.
Suitable for good bearing soil with
seasonal volume change soil/clay; e.g:
stiff clay.
The base of narrow/deep strip will
extend up to a depth where the clay
soil is unaffected by seasonal changes
in moisture content.
50-mm thick compressible sheet
material may needed to prevent lateral
pressure to the sides of the foundation
(saturated and dries out condition
cause expansion and contraction of soil
at the external face of the foundation)

Rectangular Spread
Footings
It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is the longest

dimension.
These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of
a square footing with a sufficiently large base area and
when large moment loads are present.

Circular Spread Footings

This foundation are
round in plan view.
These are more
frequently used as
foundation for light
standard, flagpoles,
and power transmission
line.
If these foundation
extend to a large
depth, they may be
have more like a deep
foundation.

Continuous Spread
Footings
This type of foundation is also known
as wall foundation or strip
foundation.
It uses is to support bearing wall.

Ring Spread Footings

This footing are continuous
footing that been wrapped into a
circle.
This type of footing is commonly
used to support the walls of
above-ground circular storage
tanks.

Forces pushing
down must equal
the forces pushing
up - EQUILIBRIUM

Heave
If the forces pushing up is
greater than the forces
pushing down the building will
be pushed upwards HEAVE

Subsid
e

If forces pushing down is

greater than the forces
pushing up the building will
sink SUBSIDENCE

Problems if the rules are

not followed
(P>T)

The load spreads at

about 400 through the
foundation

Loads Acting on the

Foundation

The foundation has to bear more than just

the load of the superstructure.

A load can be defined as anything, which

exerts pressure or thrust on a structure.

The following are the different types of

loads that act on the building foundation:
Live Load (Qk) - A live load or
imposed load is a movable,
temporary or transferable load. This
can include moving vehicles, people
walking or children jumping.
Dead Load (Gk)- This load is
permanent and immovable. It is the
non- transferable load of the structure
itself.
Wind Load (Wk) - This load is
applicable when the structure is tall.
Snow Load - This load is considered
when the structure is situated in
snowy, hilly areas.

PAD
FOUNDATION/FOOTING

Similar to continuous
footings accept for they
are usually lain under a
single pier/column.
Pad foundation spread
the load out (in a square)
with the column/pier
sitting in the middle of
the square.
Can also be designed for
loads of the walls and the
buildings are transferred
through ground beams
that rest on the pad
foundations.
The pad foundations the
will transfer the loads to

Construction sequence of pad

foundation

Marked out and

excavate ground to
correct level.
Excavation level
should up to good
load bearing strata.
After pad footing
detailing inspected
and approved than
concrete can be
poured and leave the
foundation to dry
(curing process)

The clean and

leveled ground
then poured with
50mm thickness
lean concrete.

Formwork for the

footing installed at
the correct position

Install reinforcement
according to
construction detailing

PAD
FOUNDATION/FOOTING
The advantage of this
system of foundation is
that pockets of tipped
stone or brick and
concrete rubble that
would obstruct bored
pile may be removed as
the pits are excavated.
The nature of subsoil
also may be examined
as the pits are dug to
select a level of sound
subsoil.

Square Footings

Combined Footing
Foundation

These are usefull when

columns are located too
close together for each to
have its own footing.

In this type, the two walls

or columns of a
superstructure are
provided with a single
combined footing.
This is designed so that the
center of gravity of the
supporting area is in
proportion to the center of
gravity of the tow column
loads.
These can be rectangular
or trapezoidal in shape.

RAFT FOUNDATION
Depending on its position
raft foundation also
known as Mat foundation
in floating position.
Sometimes also called as
Floating Foundation.
Used where heavily
constructed loads are to
be distributed over a large
surface area.
It is used where the soil is
marshy, clayey or soft,
with weak bearing
capacity.

RAFT FOUNDATION

SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION

This consists of
reinforced
concrete slabs
covering the entire
area of
construction, like a
floor.
Always made of
reinforced
concrete.

RAFT FOUNDATION
If ground
pressures are
likely to be
excessive at
different
seasons,
reinforcement
may be
required; this is
known as
fabric when in
sheet mesh
form.

REINFORCED RAFT FOUNDATION

Conditions for Raft/Mat Foundations

-Structural loads require large area to spread the
load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential
settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate;
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

DEEP FOUNDATION

Conventional strip foundations is

uneconomical to excavate.
The bearing ground located at
some distance below the surface
level of the made up ground. A
solution is to use deep/pile
foundation to support reinforced
concrete ground beams on which
walls are raise.
The pile/deep foundation takes
the load of the building through
made-up ground or week soil to
load-bearing strata. The ground
beams transfer the building loads
to the piles.
Piles are a convenient method of
foundation for works over water,
such as jetties or bridge piers.

DEEP FOUNDATION

The main components of the

deep pile/foundation are the
pile cap and the pile itself.
Piles are long and slender
members which transfer the
load to deeper soil or rock of
high bearing capacity avoiding
shallow soil of low bearing
capacity.
The main types of materials
used for deep piles are wood,
steel and concrete.
Piles made from these materials
are driven, drilled or jacked into
the ground and connected to
pile caps.
Main functions of a pile;
to transmit a foundation load
to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and
uplift load

Factors Influencing the Choice

of Pile

Location and type of structures

For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties, driven piles or driven
cast-in-place piles (in which the shell remains in place) are the most suitable.
For on land, driven cast-in-place types are usually the cheapest for moderate
loadings.
For piles to be installed without causing any significant ground heave or
vibrations because of their proximity to existing structures, the bored cast-inplace pile is the most suitable.

Ground conditions

Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders, or in clays when
ground heave would be detrimental.
Bored piles would not be suitable in loose water-bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot
be used in cohesionless soils since they are susceptible to collapse before the concrete can be
placed.

Durability

For heavy structures exerting large foundation loads, large-diameter bored piles are usually the
most economical.
Jacked piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures.

Cost

Affect in the choice of material.

For example, concrete piles are usually used in marine conditions
since steel piles are susceptible to corrosion in marine conditions and
timber piles can be attacked by boring molluscs.
On land, concrete piles are not the best choice, especially where the soil contains sulphates or
other harmful substances.
The overall cost of installing piles includes the actual cost of the material, the times required
for piling in the construction plan, test loading, the cost of the engineer to oversee installation
and loading and the cost of organisation and overheads incurred between the time of initial
site clearance and the time when construction of the superstructure can proceed.

Classification of Pile With Respect to Load

Transmission and Functional Behavior

End bearing
piles (point
bearing piles)
Friction piles
(cohesion piles )
Combination of
friction and
cohesion piles

End bearing piles

A pile driven through relatively

weak or compressible soils into
rock or an underlying stronger
material is an end-bearing pile.
This pile acts on the basic concept
of digging through the top soil
(relatively weak) to an underlying
firmer rock to anchor the
foundation.
The piles transfer their load on to
a firm stratum located at a
considerable depth below the
base of the structure.
This pile behaves as an ordinary
column. In weak soil, this pile will
not fail by buckling. (need only be
considered if part of the pile is
unsupported; i.e: if it is in either
air or water load is to be
Typical
end-bearing piles are driven
transmitted through friction
or
cohesion).
through very soft soil, such as a loose siltbearing stratum underlain
by compressible strata.

End bearing piles

End bearing piles-cast in

place

Cast-in-place

End bearing piles - driven or

jacking (R.C or Steel Pile)

Friction piles

Friction piles, also known as

floating pile foundations,
Commonly used in
construction to provide
underground support for
buildings, bridges, docks and
other structures.
They are often used when
end-bearing piles are not
suitable.
Friction piles rely specifically
on the friction created
between the soil and the
surface of the pile material in
order to provide stability.
The combination of friction
and adhesion with the soil
causes them to stay in place.

Friction piles

The load is
transferred to the
adjoining soil by
friction between the
pile and the
surrounding soil. The
load is transferred
downward and
laterally to the soil.
In order for friction
piles to be effective,
the soil surrounding
the area must be
fairly uniform in type
and density.
For more complex
situations,
construction
companies
sometimes rely on a
combination of
friction and end-

Friction Pile Types

Driven

Cast-in-situ

Spun Pile
Standard Spun Pile Characteristics
Pre-stressed concrete spun pile (cast in the
factory) and deliver to site for installation.
Size : 250mm to 1000mm diameter
Lengths : 6m, 9m and 12m (Typical)
Structural Capacity : 45Ton to 520Ton
Material : Grade 60MPa & 80MPa Concrete
Joints: Welded
Installation Method :
Drop Hammer
Jack-In

Spun Piles vs RC Square Piles

Spun Piles have
Better Bending Resistance
Higher Axial Capacity
Better Manufacturing Quality
Able to Sustain Higher Driving
Stresses
Higher Tensile Capacity
Easier to Check Integrity of Pile
Similar cost as RC Square Piles

Bored piles

Foundation structure made of

reinforced concrete on site.
Used to carry heavy loads by
transmitting the load to a stable
soil strata.
Bored piles is constructed by
first drilling a hole in the ground
until a competent load bearing
layer is reached.
Once achieved, a reinforcement
steel cage is lowered into the
drilled hole and the hole is filled
with concrete. It is also known
as cast in place piles.
Varies in diameter and depth. The dimension can varies
from 450mm to 2000mm. Designers will decide the size
according to the load requirement and as well as the soil
condition of the site.

Bored piles

Bored piles is widely used and

they can be constructed in most
soil condition and over water.
Due to their flexibility they are
widely used in deep foundation
for high rise buildings, jetties,
bridge foundation and can even
be used as vertical retaining
structures like a retaining wall or
sheet piles wall. In this case the
bored piles is known as
contiguous bored pile wall.
Bored piles is designed either as
a point bearing piles or friction
piles. If competent load bearing
layer like bed rock is present,
then the bored piles will be
designed as an end-bearing pile.
This means that the load carrying
capacity of the piles is mainly

Bored Piles

Bored piles can be

constructed as a single
pile or a in a pile groups.
Also can be inclined to a
certain angle. Angle
bored piles also known as
raked piles (found in
structures that requires
resistance to horizontal
load like in a retaining
wall or bridge and piers
foundation).
When bored piles
are constructed
close to one
another or
overlapping slightly,
this is known as
contiguous bored
piles wall or secant
piles wall.

Standard Bored Piles

Characteristics
Size : 450mm to 2m
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 80Ton to
2,300Tons
Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 30MPa
(Tremie)
Joints : None
Installation Method : Drill then CastIn-Situ

Borepile Cosiderations
Borepile Base Difficult to Clean
Bulging / Necking
Collapse of Sidewall
Dispute on Level of Weathered Rock

Micropiles
Size : 100mm to 350mm Diameter
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 20Ton to 250Ton
Material : Grade 25MPa to 35MPa
Grout
N80 API Pipe as Reinforcement
Joints: None
Installation Method :
Drill then Cast-In-Situ
Percussion Then Cast-In-Situ

Protecting timber piles from decay:

a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water
level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level

Factors to be considered in selecting pile type

The required diameter
The required length
(limit: 18m)

The applied loads

Factors to be considered in
selecting a pile type
(timber, steel, concrete or composite)

The anticipated
driving conditions

The durability of pile

material in specific
environment

The local availability

of each pile type

Advantages & Disadvantages

bakau pile

No

Advantages

Disadvantages

Low construction cost

Medium axial loads (100 - 400 kN)

Used as waterfront structures

Susceptible to decay

For light driving conditions

Susceptible to damage when driving

(in loose sands and soft to medium clays)

 Damage during driving can be

controlled by:
Using lightweight hammers
Using steel bands near butt
Using a steel shoe on the toe
Pre-drilling

Advantages & Disadvantages

Spun Pile
No
1

Advantages
Best suited for use as friction piles that

Disadvantages
Expensive to splice and cut

don't meet refusal during driving

(refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so
it becomes necessary to cut off the portion)
2

Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the

Difficult to cut

required length is uniform and predictable

3

Less expensive than steel piles

Susceptible to damage during handling

or driving

Have a large load capacity

Not suited for hard driving conditions

Advantages & Disadvantages

Bore Pile
No

Advantages

Disadvantages

Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig

Dependent on contractor's skills

Less noise and vibration

Lower unit end bearing capacity

Soils excavated can be observed and classified

Expensive for full-scale load test

during drilling
4

Size of shafts can easily be changed during const.

Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and

many types of bedrock

Possible to support each column with one large

shaft (no pile cap)

Drilled Equipments
Drilling Rigs
Truck-mounted drilling rig
For usual shaft, d=500 1200mm and
H=6.24m

Specialized rigs
A-Shaped Frame Rigs

 Drilling Tools
The helix-shaped flight auger (most
common used)
Effective in most sols and soft rocks
Augers with hardened teeth and pilot
stingers
Effective in hardpan or moderately
hard rock
Spiral-shaped rooting tools
Help loosen cobbles and boulders

 Bucket augers
To collect cuttings

in a cylindrical

bucket
Used in running sands
Belling buckets
To enlarge the bottom of the shaft
(bells or under reams)
Core barrels
To cut a circular slot,creating a
removable core
Used in hard rock
Multi-roller percussion bits
To cut through hard rock
Cleanout buckets
To remove final cuttings from hole

Drilled Techniques
Drilling in Firm Soils
Using dry method (open-hole method)
Most common used: simple, economy
and good reability

 Steps:
Holes usually advance using
conventional flight auger
Holes remain open without any special
support
Check the open hole for cleanliness and
alignment
Insert steel reinforcing cage
Pour the concrete

 Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or

Squeezing Soils
Caving:
The side of a hole which is collapse
before or during concrete placement.
Usually in clean sands below the
groundwater table.

 Squeezing:
The sides of hole bulging inward during or
after drilling
Usually in soft clays and silts or highly
organic soils.

Most common techniques:

Using casing
Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite
clay or attapulgite clay.

PILE CAP
Pile Cap (BS 8004), a pile cap is
defined as a concrete block cast on
the head of a pile, or a group of
piles, to transmit the load from the
structure to the pile or group of
piles.
Pile cap transfers the load form
the structures to a pile / pile group,
then the load further transfers to
from soil.
Pile caps are thus incorporated in
order to tie the pile heads together
so that individual pile movement
and settlement is greatly reduced.
The stability of the pile group is

Foundations relying on
driven piles often have
groups of piles connected by
a pile cap (a large concrete
block into which the heads of
the piles are embedded) to
distribute loads which are
larger than one pile can bear.
Pile caps and isolated piles
are typically connected with
grade beams to tie the
foundation elements
together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade
beams while heavier
elements bear directly on the
pile cap.

Pile Arrangement below pile

cap

Pile cap

Function:
To distribute the structural loads to the piles.
To tie the piles together so they can act as a unit.
To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall
stability of the group
To provide the necessary combined resistance to stresses
set up by the superstructure and/or ground movement

Column Stump

The stump is the simplest and most familiar footing used for the vertical
support and the transfer of building loads to the foundation.
Stumps are used to support timber-framed houses for which they are
currently the most cost effective.
Three types of materials are commonly used for stumps:
timber
concrete
steel.

Stumps must have a concrete or timber footing placed underneath the

base of the stump. This is to spread the load transferred to the stump from
the building. This support beneath the stump is called a 'pad' or 'soleplate'.
Usually concrete stumps are provided with concrete pads poured in situ
on the site. Timber stumps are provided with timber soleplates.

Ground Beam

Ground beams are used in

situations where foundation
walls may not be
achievable.
The beams are erected over
columns or piers taken into
the soil.
In house construction, they
are used to carry boundary
walls or sheds built outside
on landscaped soils.
Ground beams save on the
costs of very deep
excavations for foundation
and walls.
Able to carry greater loads
in loose soils since they
don't rest on the soils.
They carry their on weight
from column to column.
When erecting them, the
piers must be already cast

Ground Beam
The ground beam construction procedure (10 steps);

1. clearing the ground.

2. The span between the columns or piers is rammed and
compacted.
3. A blinding layer is done with quarry dust.
4. The column or pier reinforcements should be left a foot high to
join with the beam.
5. The reinforcements are then tied and bent separately.
6. Once ready, they are carried and laid over the columns and
blinding.
7. The reinforcement is laid straight with spacer blocks put at the
bottom.
8. Once the beam steel is in place, form work is erected to the
sides. These must be firmed into the ground and made very
tight. This will prevent the escape of the cement slurry when
vibrating.
9. After the form work is complete, concrete is prepared and
poured into the forms. The process continues while vibrating
to ensure the concrete is well bonded with the steel.
10.The top is tamped to be smooth. The forms are removed after
seven days while curing.

SUMMARY
Importance of Preliminary Study
Understanding the Site Geology
Carry out Proper Subsurface
Investigation
that Suits the Terrain & Subsoil
Selection of Suitable Pile
Pile Design Concepts

SUMMARY
Importance of Piling Supervision
Typical Piling Problems Encountered
Present Some Case Histories