THE NATURE OF MATERIALS

1. Atomic Structure and the Elements

2. Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
3. Crystalline Structures
4. Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
5. Engineering Materials

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Importance of Materials in
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is a transformation process
It is the material that is transformed

And it is the behavior of the material when

subjected to the forces, temperatures, and other
parameters of the process that determines the
success of the operation

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Element Groupings
The elements can be grouped into families and
relationships established between and within the
families by means of the Periodic Table
Metals occupy the left and center portions of the
table
Nonmetals are on right
Between them is a transition zone containing
metalloids or semimetals

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Periodic Table

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Atomic Structure and the

Elements
The basic structural unit of matter is the atom
Each atom is composed of a positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of
negatively charged electrons so the charges are
balanced
More than 100 elements, and they are the
chemical building blocks of all matter

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Simple Model of Atomic

Structure for Several Atoms
(a) Hydrogen, (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, and
(e) sodium

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Bonding between Atoms and

Molecules

Atoms are held together in molecules by various

types of bonds

1. Primary bonds - generally associated with

formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated with
attraction between molecules

Primary bonds are much stronger than secondary

bonds

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Primary Bonds
Characterized by strong atomtoatom attractions that
involve exchange of valence electrons
Following forms:
Ionic

Covalent
Metallic

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Ionic Bonding
Atoms of one element
give up their outer
electron(s), which are in
turn attracted to atoms of
some other element to
increase electron count
in the outermost shell to
eight

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Covalent Bonding
Electrons are shared
(as opposed to
transferred) between
atoms in their outermost
shells to achieve a
stable set of eight

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Two Examples of
Covalent Bonding

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Metallic Bonding

Sharing of outer shell

electrons by all atoms to
form a general electron
cloud that permeates the
entire block

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Secondary Bonds
Whereas primary bonds involve atomtoatom attractive
forces, secondary bonds involve attraction forces
between molecules
No transfer or sharing of electrons
Bonds are weaker than primary bonds
Three forms:

1. Dipole forces
2. London forces
3. Hydrogen bonding
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Dipole Forces
Arise in a molecule comprised of two atoms with
equal and opposite electrical charges
Each molecule therefore forms a dipole that attracts
other molecules

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

London Forces
Attractive force between non-polar molecules, i.e.,
atoms in molecule do not form dipoles
However, due to rapid motion of electrons in orbit,
temporary dipoles form when more electrons are on
one side

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Hydrogen Bonding
Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms
covalently bonded to another atom (e.g., H2O)
Since electrons to complete shell of hydrogen atom
are aligned on one side of nucleus, opposite side has
a net positive charge that attracts electrons in other
molecules

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Macroscopic Structures of Matter

Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of a
more macroscopic structure of matter
When materials solidify from the molten state, they
tend to close ranks and pack tightly, arranging
themselves into one of two structures:
Crystalline

Noncrystalline

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Crystalline Structure
Structure in which atoms are located at regular and
recurring positions in three dimensions
Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of atoms that is
repeated
The pattern may be replicated millions of times within
a given crystal
Characteristic structure of virtually all metals, as well
as many ceramics and some polymers

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Three Crystal Structures in

Metals
Three types of crystal structure: (a) body-centered
cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, and (c) hexagonal
close-packed

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Crystal Structures for Common

Metals
Room temperature crystal structures for some of the
common metals:
Bodycentered cubic (BCC)
Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
Facecentered cubic (FCC)
Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
Hexagonal closepacked (HCP)
Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals

Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying

material to continue replication of unit cell, e.g., grain
boundaries in metals

Imperfections can also be introduced purposely; e.g.,

addition of alloying ingredient in metal

Types of defects: (1) point defects, (2) line defects, (3)

surface defects

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving either a
single atom or a small number of atoms

Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ionpair vacancy, (c) interstitialcy,

(d) displaced ion (Frenkel Defect).

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Line Defects
Connected group of point defects that forms a line in the
lattice structure
Most important line defect is a dislocation, which can
take two forms:
Edge dislocation

Screw dislocation

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Edge Dislocation
Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in the
lattice

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Screw Dislocation
Spiral within the lattice
structure wrapped
around an
imperfection line,
like a screw is
wrapped around its
axis

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Surface Defects
Imperfections that extend in two directions to form a
boundary
Examples:
External: the surface of a crystalline object is
an interruption in the lattice structure
Internal: grain boundaries are internal surface
interruptions

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Elastic Strain
When a crystal experiences a gradually increasing
stress, it first deforms elastically

Deformation of a crystal structure: (a) original lattice: (b) elastic

deformation, no permanent change in positions of atoms

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Plastic Strain
If the stress is higher
than forces holding
atoms in their lattice
positions, then a
permanent shape
change occurs

Plastic deformation (slip), in which atoms in the crystal lattice

structure are forced to move to new "homes

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Effect of Dislocations on
Strain
In the series of diagrams, the movement of the dislocation
allows deformation to occur under a lower stress than in a
perfect lattice

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Slip on a Macroscopic Scale

Slip occurs many times over throughout the metal when
subjected to a deforming load, thus causing it to exhibit
its macroscopic behavior in the stress-strain relationship
Dislocations are a goodnewsbadnews situation
Good news in manufacturing the metal is easier to
form
Bad news in design the metal is not as strong as
the designer would like

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Twinning
A second mechanism
of plastic deformation
in which atoms on one
side of a plane (the
twinning plane) are
shifted to form a mirror
image of the other side
Before

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Twinning

After

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Polycrystalline Nature of Metals

A block of metal may contain millions of individual
crystals, called grains
Such a structure is called polycrystalline

Each grain has its own unique lattice orientation

But collectively, the grains are randomly oriented in
the block

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Grains and Grain Boundaries in

Metals
How do polycrystalline structures form?
As a volume of metal cools from the molten state and
begins to solidify, individual crystals nucleate at
random positions and orientations throughout the
liquid
These crystals grow and finally interfere with each
other, forming at their interface a surface defect a
grain boundary, which are transition zones, perhaps
only a few atoms thick
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Noncrystalline (Amorphous)
Structures
Water and air have noncrystalline structures
A metal loses its crystalline structure when melted
Some engineering materials have noncrystalline forms
in their solid state
Glass
Many plastics
Rubber
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Features of Noncrystalline
Structures

Two features differentiate noncrystalline (amorphous)

from crystalline materials:

1. Absence of longrange order in molecular

structure
2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion
characteristics

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Crystalline versus Noncrystalline

Structures of Materials
Difference in structure between: (a) crystalline and (b)
noncrystalline materials
Crystal structure is regular, repeating; noncrystalline
structure is less tightly packed and random

(a)

(b)

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Volumetric Effects
Characteristic change in
volume for a pure metal
(a crystalline structure),
compared to same
volumetric changes in
glass (a noncrystalline
structure)

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Summary: Characteristics of
Metals
Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost
without exception
BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
Atoms held together by metallic bonding
Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
FCC metals are generally ductile

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Summary: Characteristics of
Ceramics
Most ceramics have crystalline structures, while glass
(SiO2) is amorphous
Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent bonding,
or both
Properties: high hardness and stiffness, electrically
insulating, refractory, and chemically inert

2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals

Summary: Characteristics of
Polymers
Many repeating mers in molecule held together by
covalent bonding
Polymers usually carbon plus one or more other
elements: H, N, O, and Cl
Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of
amorphous and crystalline
Properties: low density, high electrical resistivity, and
low thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary
widely
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals