CULTURAL ASPECTS OF

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Geert Hofstede: The
Management of Multicultural
Structures (1991) and Cultures
and Organisations. Software of
the Mind (2005)

Layers of Culture. Mental programming

National
Regional

and/or ethnical and/or religious

and/or linguistic
Gender
Generational
Social class
Organisational and corporate

Methodology

Large research project into national culture differences

Subsidiaries of a multinational corporation (IBM) in 64
countries
Subsequent studies by others:
students in 23 countries (for long-term/short-term
orientation),
elites in 19 countries,
commercial airline pilots in 23 countries,
up-market consumers in 15 countries,
civil service managers in 14 countries.

Dimensions of National Cultures

Power

distance (PDI)
Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV)
Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS)
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI)
Long-term orientation (LTO)

Power distance
Definition:

the extent to which the less

powerful members of organizations and
institutions (like the family) accept and expect
that power is distributed unequally.
It depends on geographical space
(superior=small PDI), number of inhabitants
(great=great PDI), income (rich
countries=small PDI)

Elements of PDI

Small distance to power

Inequalities among people must be minimised
Equality in family relations
At school, teachers expect initiative from their
students
Teachers are the experts who transfer
impersonal truths to students
Students treat teachers as their equals
More educated persons have less authoritarian
values, as compared with less educated
persons
Decentralised organisations are typical
Small salary gap between superior and inferior
levels of the organisation
Employees expect to be consulted
The ideal boss is a resourceful democrat
Privileges and status symbols are not well
regarded
Big middle class
People with power try to look less powerful than
in reality

Great distance to power

Inequalities among people are expected and
normal
Obedience-respect in family relations
At school, all initiatives come from the teacher
Teachers are gurus transmitting their personal
knowledge to the students
Students treat teachers with respect
Both more educated and less educated
persons have values with similar authority
Centralised organisations are typical
Great differences in income
Employees expect to be told what to do
The ideal boss is a good father
Privileges and status symbols are expected and
valued
Small middle class
People with power try to look as impressive as
possible

Values of PDI
Country/region
Malaysia
Slovakia
Guatemala
Panama
Philippines
Russia
Romania
Serbia
Bulgaria
Morocco
France
Greece
Czech Rep.
Hungary
United States
Great Britain

Score

Rank

104
104
95
95
94
93
90
87
70
70
68
60
57
46
40
35

1-2
1-2
3-4
3-4
5
6
7
8
22-23
22-23
27-29
41-42
45-46
55
57-59
63-65

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Definition: the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find
societies in which the ties between individuals are
loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself
and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side,
we find societies in which people from birth onwards
are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often
extended families (with uncles, aunts and
grandparents) which continue protecting them in
exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

Elements of IDV

Individualism
Each individual takes care of him/herself
and their own family
Children are taught to think as Iand
me
To speak straight shows honesty
Feeling of guilt leads to loss of
respectability
Education: how to learn
Obtaining a degree: increases the
individual income and self respect
The work contract is based on mutual
advantage
Decisions of
employment/firing/promotion are taken
according to individual skills and rules of
the organisation

Collectivism
Families or groups of common
interest/loyalty
Children are taught to think as we, us
Harmony, no direct confrontation
Intense group communication
Shame/losing group and self-honour
Education: how to behave
Degree: gives access to a group with a
superior status
Employer/employee: seen in moral
terms, as in a family
Decisions of
employment/firing/promotion are taken
according to the benefit of the whole
group

Values of IDV
Country/Region

Score

Rank

United States
Australia
Great Britain
Canada
Hungary
Netherlands
New Zeeland
Italy
Denmark
France
Sweden
Germany
Greece
Bulgaria
Mexico
Romania
China
Guatemala

91
90
89
80
80
80
79
76
74
71
71
67
35
30
30
30
20
6

1
2
3
4-6
4-6
4-6
7
9
10
13-14
13-14
18
43
47-48
47-48
47-48
56-61
74

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Definition:

the distribution of roles between

the genders () [as] men's values from one
country to another contain a dimension from
very assertive and competitive and maximally
different from women's values on the one
side, to modest and caring and similar to
women's values on the other. The assertive
pole has been called 'masculine' and the
modest, caring pole 'feminine .

Elements of MAS
Masculine

Performance society ideal: support for the

strong
The economy should continue growing
The government spends a small part of budget
for the financial assistance of poor countries
and quite big for national defense
International conflicts must be solved by a show
of force and by fight
A relatively small number of women in elected
political positions
The dominant religion supports male
dominance
Womens liberation means that women will be
accepted in positions until now exclusively male
Youth dominates
Immigrants should assimilate
Best student is the norm; praise for excellent
students
Brilliance in teachers is admired

Feminine

Welfare society ideal: help for the needy

The greatest priority: environment protection
The government spends a real proportion of
budget for the financial assistance of poor
countries and quite small for national defence
International conflicts should be solved by
negotiation and compromise
A relatively big number of women in elected
political positions
The dominant religions support the
complementarity of the sexes
Womens liberation means that both men and
women must assume equal roles both at home
as at the work place
Old age is protected
Immigrants should integrate
Average student is the norm; praise for weak
students
Friendliness in teachers is admired

Values of MAS
Country/Region

Score

Rank

Slovakia
Japan
Hungary
Austria
Venezuela
Italy
China
Germany
Great Britain
United States
Australia
France
Peru
Romania
Spain
Sweden

110
95
88
79
73
70
66
66
66
62
61
43
42
42
42
5

1
2
3
4
5
7
11-13
11-13
11-13
19
20
47-50
51-53
51-53
51-53
74

Uncertainty Avoidance
Definition:

deals with a society's tolerance

for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately
refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates
to what extent a culture programs its
members to feel either uncomfortable or
comfortable in unstructured situations.

Elements of UAI
Reduced uncertainty avoidance index (the
UK)

Uncertainty is considered a normal aspect of

life and is expected to appear every day
What is different is curious
Students prefer types of learning with free tasks
and are interested in quality discussions
Teachers can say, I dont know
No more rules than absolutely necessary
Time is flexible
Attempts of integrating the minorities
What is true for a group must not be imposed
on other groups
Human rights are supported
Nurses roles are emphasised
There should be no more rules than strictly
necessary
Top managers are concerned with strategy

Intense uncertainty avoidance index

(Germany)

Uncertainty is considered a danger which must

be fought
What is different is dangerous
Students prefer types of learning with clear
syllabi and are interested in getting the right
answers
Teachers must know everything
Time is money
Resistance to new ideas and processes
Assimilation of minorities
Xenophobia, intolerance
Doctors roles are emphasised
There is an emotional need for rules, even if
these will not work
Top managers are concerned with daily
operations

Values of UAI
Country/Region

Score

Rank

Greece
Portugal
Guatemala
Uruguay
Russia
Romania
Bulgaria
Hungary
Mexico
Italy
Germany
Netherlands
United States
Great Britain
Ireland

112
104
101
100
95
90
85
82
82
75
65
53
46
35
35

1
2
3
4
7
14
23-25
26-27
26-27
33
43
53
62
66-67
66-67

Long-term vs. short-term orientation

Definition:

It can be said to deal with Virtue

regardless of Truth. Values associated with
Long Term Orientation are thrift and
perseverance; values associated with Short
Term Orientation are respect for tradition,
fulfilling social obligations, and protecting
one's 'face.

Elements of LTO

Short-term orientation
Respect for traditions
Respect for social
obligations and status
Social pressure for youth
Little saving, little money for
investment
Quick results
Preoccupation for face
Preoccupation for knowing
the truth

Long-term orientation
Adapting traditions to a
material context
Respect for social
obligations and status within
certain limits
Respect for old age
Emphasis on savings and
investment
Long-term results
Preoccupation for virtue

LTO Values
Country/Region Score

China 118
Hong Kong
Taiwan 87
Japan 80
Vietnam80
Korea (South)
Brazil 65
India
61
Thailand
Hungary
Singapore
Denmark
Netherlands
Norway 44
Ireland 43
Finland 41
Bangladesh
Switzerland
France 39
United States
Great Britain

1
96
3
4-5
4-5
75
7
8
56
50
48
46
44
13-14
15
16
40
40
19
29
25

Rank
2

9
10
11
12
13-14

17-18
17-18
31
32-33