Advanced Research Methods

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Dr. Yousaf Hayat

MEANINGS OF RESEARCH

Research is an art of scientific investigation which refers to a search

for knowledge.

Systematized effort to gain new knowledge is also called research

(Redman and Morey, 1923).

Research is an academic activity and should be used in technical

sense. Research comprises defining and redefining of problems,
formulating

hypothesis

or

suggested

solutions;

collecting,

organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching

certain conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis (Clifford
Woody).
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MEANINGS OF RESEARCH

Research is a movement i.e. movement from the known to

unknown. Research is actually a journey of discovery.

Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of

knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of
truth with the help of study/investigation, observation,
comparison and experimentation. In short, the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research.
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MEANINGS OF RESEARCH

The systematic approach concerning generalization and the

formulation of a theory is also called research. As such the
term research refers to the systematic method consisting of
identifying the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting
the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching to a certain
conclusions either in the form of solution(s) toward the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.
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Significance of Research
Following are the significance of conducting a research:
1.

Research includes scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organizations.

2.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
Through research, one can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the
consequences of each of these alternatives.

3.

Decision making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the
decisions of the policy makers.

4.

In the context of government, research as a tool of economic policy has three distinct
phases of operation viz (i) investigation of economic structure through continual
compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the
forces underlying them; (iii) the prediction of future developments (called the prognosis).

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Significance of Research
Following are the significance of conducting a research:
5.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and

planning problems of business and industry. Operational research refers to the
application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution
of business problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what
can be termed as optimization problems.

6.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social

relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. Because of
its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance
in solving immediate problems of human relations.

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Significance of Research***
In addition to above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in
view the following points:
(i).

To those students who are to write a masters or PhD thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.

(ii). To professionals, research may mean a source of livelihood.

(iii). To philosophers and tinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights.
(iv). To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work.
(v). To analyst and intellectuals, research may mean the generalization of new
theories.
Thus, research is the foundation of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables to understand the
new development in ones filed in a better way.
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MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
It is often asked that why the peoples conduct research? This question is
of fundamental importance and some of the possible motives of
research may either be one or more of the following:
1.

Desire to get a research degree (certificate) along with its

consequential benefits.

2.

Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems i.e.

concern over practical problems initiates research.

3.

Desire to get intellectual joy.

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MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
4.

Desire to be of service to society

5.

Desire to get respectability

However, this is not a complete list of factors motivating people

to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as
directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand casual relationships,
social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate people to perform research operations.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follow:
1.

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

2.

Applied vs. Fundamental Research

3.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

4.

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

5.

Business and Social Research

Other Types of Research

It includes the following:
(a). Laboratory research or filed setting research or simulation research
(b). Clinical or diagnostic research
(c). Historical research etc.
6.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Broad Categories of Research:
(1)

Theoretical Research and

(2)

Applied Research

Theoretical research is based upon the development of new theory or

methods, needs simulations for verification of the methodology and
convergence of the model parameters with respect to the pre-set
values, requires computer codes (program) for its application. It is
also called basic or pure research. On the other hand, applied research
is based upon the collected data by using the existing methods of data
analysis, test the hypothesis related with the required objectives.
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Descriptive vs. Analytical Research:

Descriptive research includes surveys and facts-finding enquiries of
different kind. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present. It is also called Ex post
facto research for descriptive research studies. Most Ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data. Descriptive research also
includes survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlational methods

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Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

Analytical Research
A type of research in which a researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the materials. Generally it is based
upon the secondary data and information available in the
printed shapes.

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Applied vs. Fundamental Research

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic or pure)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
Whereas, fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory. Simply, gathering knowledge for knowledges
sake is called pure or basic research; while research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research.
Similarly, research studies concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. a
phenomenon relating or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research
includes, word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests, perception of peoples towards like and dislike of any
brand, and similar other projective techniques.

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Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret the existing ones.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. Empirical research is appropriate when
proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way.

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Other Types of Research

Business Research

Social Research

Historical Research

Action Research

Policy Research

Experimental Research

Medical Research

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Research Methods versus Methodology***

Research methods may be understood as those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to
the methods the researchers use in preferring research operations. Research
methods can be put into the following three groups:
1.

It includes those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.

2.

It consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing

relationships between the data and unknowns.

3.

The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.

The research methods falling in group 1 and 2 are generally called the analytical
tools of research.

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Research Methods versus Methodology

Research
methodology
is
a
way
to
systematically solve the research problem. It
provides the way to conduct a scientific
research step by step. It is incumbent for the
researchers that he/she must know about
the methods and methodology. (Logic behind
the
methods
is
generally
called
methodology).
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Criteria for a Good Research

The following criteria are needed (more or less) for conducting a good research.

The purpose of a problem under study should be clearly defined and unambiguous as
possible.

The research procedures used for conducting a study should be clearly

defined/described in detail to allow other researchers to repeat the same research for
verification of the existing theory/theories or to include other factors for checking their
usefulness.

The procedural design should be carefully planned so as to get the results that are as
objective as possible. It can also be stated that the procedural design should yield the
results according to the specified objectives.

The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

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Criteria for a Good Research

The researcher should use appropriate method for data analysis, and the
analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance.

The researcher should completely report the limitations and advantage

associated with the procedural design and the methods used for data analysis.

Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research

and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

The researcher should be an experienced person and have full background

knowledge of the problem under study. In addition, to have a good reputation
in research and is a person of integrity.

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Components of a Research Design

A detail outline that how research/investigation will take place is called research design.
Following are the components (more or less) of a research design:

Define the problem carefully.

Define clearly the information which will be needed to solve the problem (to
conduct a research).

Design the exploratory, descriptive and/or casual phases of the research.

Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.

Prepare a questionnaire according to the objectives of a research and pretest it

before data collection (i.e. conduct a pilot survey).

Specify the universe of the study, sampling frame, sampling procedure and sample
size such that a representative sample can be selected for obtaining the required
objectives of the research.

Develop a plan for data analysis.

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DEFINING THE RESEARCH

PROBLEM

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Research Problem and Its Components

We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
(i). There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem.
(ii). There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.
(iii). There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.
(iv). There must remain some doubt in the mind of researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.

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Research Problem and Its Components

(v).

There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. Thus, a research
problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained
optimally in the context of a given environment.

There are several other factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For
instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of
action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternatives courses of action may
be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and
react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors. All such elements or at
least the important once may be thought of in the context of a research problem.

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Selection of Problem***
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is
too difficult, although it may not appear to be so. A research guide can at
the most only help a researcher to choose a subject for research purpose.
However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in
selecting a research problem or a subject for research.
(i).

Subject which is overdone should not be normally selected because it will

be difficult to throw any new light in such a case.

(ii).

Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average

researcher.

(iii). Too narrow or too vague problem should be avoided.

(iv). The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within ones reach.

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Selection of Problem
(v).

The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the cost
involved, and the time factors are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a

problem, a

researcher must ask himself of the following:

(a).

Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?

(b).

Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?

(c).

Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subject.

If the answers to all these questions are in affirmative, one may become sure so far as the
practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi).

The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

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Necessity of Defining the Problem

A proper definition of the problem will enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like:

What data are to be collected?

What characteristics of the data are relevant and need to be studied?

What relations are needed to be explored?

What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and

similar other questions like that in the mind of researcher can help him in
planning a strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the
research problem has been well defined.

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Techniques involved in defining a problem

(i).

Statement of a problem in general way

(ii). Understanding the nature of the problem

(iii). Surveying the available literature
(iv). Developing the ideas through discussions
(v). Rephrasing the research problem into a working
position

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Techniques involved in defining a problem

In addition, the following points must also be observed while defining a
research problem:
(a). Technical terms and words or phrase with special meanings used in
the statement of the problem should be clearly defined.
(b). Basic assumptions (if any) relating to the research problem should
be clearly stated.

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Techniques involved in defining a problem

(c). A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e. the
criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
(d). The suitability of the time-period and the sources of the data available
must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e). The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to
be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

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Meaning of Research Design

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study constitutes a research design. OR
Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. More explicitly, the
design decisions happen to be in respect of:

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Meaning of Research Design

(i).

what is the study about?

(ii).

why is the study being made?

(iii).

where will the study be carried out?

(iv).

what type of data is required?

(v).

where can the required data be found?

(vi).

what periods of time will the study include?

(vii).

what will be the sample design?

(viii).

what techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix).

how will the data be analyzed?

(x).

in what style will the report be prepared?

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Meaning of Research Design

Keeping in view the above (i) to (x), one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:
(a).The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study;
(b).The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
(c).The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
(d).The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

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Important Features of Research Design

Important features of a research design are:
1.

It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem.

2.

It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering

and analyzing the data.

3.

It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.

In sum up, a research design must at least contain a clear statement of the
research problem, procedures and techniques used for gathering
information/data, the population to be studied, and the methods to be
used in processing and analyzing the data.
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Need for Research Design

Before going to conduct a research, a research design is needed because it
facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
For example, to construct an economical and attractive construction of a
house, one should consult an architect or an expert for making a map
so that all the necessary things for its construction are highlighted.
Similarly, we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis methods for research project keeping in view the
objectives, time and labours required.
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Need for Research Design

Therefore, Research design stands for advance planning of the
methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and
money. The research design helps the researcher to organize his
ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him/her to look for
flaws and inadequacies. Without proper and accurate research
design, it will be difficult to provide a comprehensive review of
the proposed study (research).

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Features of a Good Design

Following are the features of a good research design:
1.

Flexible

2. Appropriate

3. Efficient

4. Economical and so on

Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
collected data and analyzed is considered a good design. The design which
gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in
many investigations.
Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity
for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.

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Features of a Good Design

An appropriate research design for a particular research problem
usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

the means of obtaining information

the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any

the objectives of the problem to be studied

the nature of the problem to be studied

the availability of time and money for conducting a research

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Developing a Research Plan

Arrangement of ideas in the form of an experimental plan is called a research plan. Research plan
contains the following prerequisites:

Research objectives should be clearly stated in line.

Stated the problem explicitly so that one may know what information is to be obtained for
solving the problem.

Each major concept which a researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms
in context of the research problem.

The plan should contain the methods to be used in solving the problem.

The plan must contain the details of the techniques to be adopted. For example, if interview
method is used for data collection it should be written as such. Procedure for quantifying the data
must also be given.

Universe of the population, sampling plan, selection of appropriate sample size etc should be
selected in such a way that all these are feasible.

Processing of data should also be a part of the sampling plan.

Results of the pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the research project
should also be prepared and laid down in the plan.

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Important Concepts Relating To Research Design

Before starting the research design, it would be appropriate to explain various concepts
for easy understanding relating to design. It includes the following:

Dependent and independent variables:

Extraneous variable:

Research hypothesis:

Experimental and non-experimental testing of hypothesis:

Experimental and Control groups:

Treatments:

Experiment:

Experimental unit

Sampling Unit

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Types of Research Design

Two-sample t-test:

Comparison of two means from independent populations

Paired-samples t-test for dependent samples:

Information/data are collected from the same individual of a population i.e. before
training and after training etc.

Chi-square test for association:

To develop a relationship between two or more qualitative variables.

Regression and Correlation techniques:

To establish a relationship between dependent and independent variable(s)

(Regression); to establish a relationship between random variables in terms
their degree of measurements (the variables under study are quantitative in
nature).
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Types of Research Design

One-way ANOVA or Completely Randomized Design (CRD):

This design is used for comparison of more than two population means with the
condition that all the units of an experiment are homogeneous.

Two-way ANOVA or Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD):

This design serves the same purpose like CRD but here the experimental units are
grouped into units having similar characteristics and there exist one source
of variation in the experimental units. For example, comparison of average
monthly sales of stores located at different cities.

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Types of Research Design

Three-way classification research design (Latin Square Design):

If there exist two sources of variations in the experimental units then this
design is preferred for mean comparison of different population
(treatments/practices etc).

Factorial Designs:

If multiple factors are involved in the experiment and one is interested to

compare the main effects of the factors involved and their
interactions, then factorial design is used for comparison.
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Definition of Various Concepts used in Research

Variable

Qualitative
Variable

Quantitative
Variable

Discrete
Variable

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Continuous
Variable

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Definition of Various Concepts used in Research

Variable:
Any characteristic of interest which takes on different values is called variable. For
example: production, cost, temperature, sale of a market, consumption, price of a
commodity at different locations etc.Variable is broadly divided into qualitative
and quantitative variables.
Qualitative and Quantitative Variables
A variable is defined to be qualitative which is not capable of numerical measurement
but one can feel the presence or absence of a particular phenomena. For
example, honesty, beauty, race, like and dislike, pass or fail, gender
classification etc.
A variable is defined to be quantitative which is capable of numerical measurement.
For example, cost of production, price of a commodity, monthly consumption of
households etc.
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Definition of Various Concepts used in Research

Discrete and Continuous Variables
A variable is said to be discrete if it takes isolated integral values or a
variable which take the values on jumps is called a discrete
variable. For example, number of rooms in a house, number of
students in the class, number of Banks in different cities, size of a
household, number of shops in a market etc.
A type of variable which takes all possible values with in a given
interval/range (a, b). For example, consumption, production,
temperature, monthly sale of a market, height, weight and age etc.
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Other Variables in Research

1.

Dependent Variable

2.

Independent Variable

3.

Moderating Variable

4.

Intervening Variable

5.

Dummy Variable/Categorical Variable etc.

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Other Variables in Research

Dependent and Independent Variables
A type of variable which is influenced by other variable/variables is called
dependent variable. It is also called random or stochastic variable. OR
A variable which depends on one or more other variables is called dependent
variable. OR
A variable of primary interest that lends itself for investigation as a function of
other cause variables is known as dependent variable.

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Other Variables in Research

For example, in economics, consumption of a commodity (say apple)
depends upon the income, household size, and price etc of the
commodity.
In this example, consumption of apple is a dependent variable which
will vary from one family to other family; while the other variables
like income, household size and price are independent variables.
A variable which influence a dependent variable in either direction
(positive or negative) is called independent variable.

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Other Variables in Research

Moderating Variable:
A variable which modify the original relationship is called moderating variable.
Or
A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship
between dependent and independent variables, is called moderating
variable.
For example, Amount of study in terms of study hours affect the grades, however,
those student consulting quality information for the purpose may even
perform much better as compared to others students. In this example, it is
evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is not
considered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final
grades, so called moderating variable.

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Other Variables in Business Research

Moderating
Final Variable:
grade/

Amount of
Test
score
A variable
which
modify the original relationship is called
moderating
study
hours variable.
(Dependent
var.)
Or
(Independent var.)
A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship
between dependent and independent variables, is called moderating
variable.
For example, Amount of studyQuality
in terms of study hours affect the grades,

Information
however, those student consulting
quality information for the purpose may
var.)
even perform much (Moderating
better as compared
to others students. In this example,

it is evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is not

considered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final
grades, so called moderating variable.
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Other Variables in Research

Intervening Variable:
A variable that surfaces between the time the independent variable starts
operating to influence the dependent variable and its impact is felt on it, is
called intervening variable.

Final grade/
Test score
(Dependent var.)

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Amount of
study hours
(Independent var.)

Input Knowledge
In Memory
(Intervening var.)

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Measurement in Research
Daily Life measurements:
1.

Height, Weight, Financial assets etc. (physical object)

2.

Motivation, like a song, a painting or the personalities of our

friends (abstracts).

By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects

or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the
rules under which the number are assigned.
properties like weight, height etc can be measured directly with some
standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure
properties like motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the
like.
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Measurement Scales
Different measurement scales are used measurement but most widely
used scales are:
(a)

Nominal Scale

(b)

Ordinal Scale

(c)

Interval Scale

(d)

Ratio Scale

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Measurement Scales
(a) Nominal Scale
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball
players in order to identify them. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of
keeping track of people, objects and events. The number assigned can not be
summed, neither be averaged, neither be compared with other groups.
In case of nominal scale, the counting of members/individual is the only possible
arithmetic operation. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for
nominal scale but mode can be used as a measure of central tendency. Chi-square
test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for
the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out.

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Nominal variables

Nominal Variables = Data values represent categories with no order

sequence of categories is arbitrary -- ordering has no meaning in and

of itself:

e.g. country of origin: Pakistan, India, USA, Japan, Germany

e.g. make of car: HONDA, NISSAN, DAIHATSU, ..

e.g. job category

Nominal variables can be either string (alphanumeric) or numeric

values that represent distinct categories (e.g., 1 = Male, 2 = Female).

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Measurement Scales
(b) Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of
the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scale and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. For example, if
student-A position in the class is 5 and that of student-B is 30, it can be said that
student-A position is 6 times as good as that of student-B. Ordinal scale only
permit the ranking of items from lowest to highest or highest to lowest. Ordinal
scale has no absolute zero and the real differences between ranks may not be
equal.
The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or less than without
our being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between rank
1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between 5 and 6. Since, the data
in ordinal scale is based on ranks, so the appropriate measure of central tendency
is the median while measure of dispersion can be computed by using percentile or
quartile measure. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.
Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.

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Ordinal variables

Values fall within discrete but ordered categories or Data values represent
categories with some intrinsic order:

i.e. the sequence of categories has meaning

e.g. education categories:

1 = primary

2 = secondary

3 = college

4 = university undergraduate

5 = university postgraduate master

6 = university postgraduate MS
7 = university postgraduate PhD

e.g. Economic status of a respondent:

1 = Very poor, 2 = poor, 3 = good, 4 = very good

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Ordinal variables = Data values represent categories with some

intrinsic order:

(e.g., low, medium, high; strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly

disagree).

Ordinal variables can either be string (alphanumeric) or numeric

values that represent distinct categories (e.g., 1= low, 2 =
medium, 3 = high).

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Statistical Tests and Ordinal Variables

Appropriate measure of central tendency is the median.

Measure of dispersion can be computed by using percentile or

quartile measure.

Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.

Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the Nonparametric Methods.

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Measurement Scales
(c) Interval Scale
In case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a
basis for making the units equal. Interval scale can have an arbitrary zero, but not an absolute
zero or the origin. The primary limitation of interval scale is the lake of a true zero; it does not
have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a characteristic or trait.
The Fahrenheit scale is an example of interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and can
not do with it. For example, one can say that an increase in temperature from 30 0 to 400
involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60 0 to 700, but one cannot say
that the temperature of 600 is twice as warm as the temperature of 300 because both numbers
are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the
freezing point of water. The ratio of 30 and 60 degrees means nothing because zero is an
arbitrary point.
Mean, SD, Correlation coefficient, t-test and F-test can be applied for the statistical significance.

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Measurement Scales
(d) Ratio Scale
Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. One can
conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly of absolute zero
of time. For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates
the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute zero of
temperature is unobtainable and it remains a concept in the
researcher mind.
Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Measures of
physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance etc are
examples of ratio scale. Generally, all statistical methods can be
applied with ration scale. Also the numbers of ratio scale can be
manipulated like that of real numbers.
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