Lecture 2

Vitamins
Vitamin A
 Vitamins Learning objectives

Understand why V/M are essential to healthy living;

Understand that there are healthy intake levels for V/M and
that excesses may be worse than deficiencies;
Know the four fat soluble vitamins and basic roles;
Know the water soluble vitamins we discuss in class and their
roles;
;
Know that processing and storage may affect some vitamins
more than others.
 Vitamins
• Organic compound found in foods
• These must be taken in small quantity in
order to perform normal metabolic
processes in the body
 Definition and Classification
• Non-caloric organic nutrients
• Needed in very small amounts
• Facilitators – help body processes
proceed; digestion, absorption,
metabolism, growth etc.
• Some appear in food as precursors or
provitamins
 Vitamins
• Long before vitamins were identified, certain foods were
known to cure conditions brought on by what we now
know to be vitamin deficiencies
– The ancient Greek treated night blindness with beef liver, a rich
source of vitamin A
– During the 15th & 16th centuries, many British sailors on long sea
voyages died from the disease scurvy, until it was discovered
that it could be prevented by citrus, a rich source of ascorbate
 Vitamins

• Today, consumers in developed countries rarely

consider vitamin deficiencies when making choices
about diet & vitamin supplements
– Vitamin deficiencies are significant in developing countries
– Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of blindness in many of
those countries
• With vitamins, a little goes a long way
– We need ~1 oz (28 g) for every 70 kg of food we consume
– “If a little is good, then more must be better” does not apply
 Fat soluble vitamins
ADEK
Dissolve in organic solvents – methanol, gasoline etc..
Can build up because they are not excreted
Absorbed during fat absorption
Transported in lipoproteins

Vitamin A – carotenoids and retinoids

Vitamin D – cholesterol product
Vitamin E – tocopherols
Vitamin K – menaquinones and phylloquinones
 Vitamins
• Essential organic substances needed in small amounts
in the diet for the normal function, growth & maintenance
of body tissues.
• They can’t be synthesized in sufficient amount to meet
individual need or they can’t be synthesized at all. The
body can synthesize some niacin & vitamin D, & vitamin
K & biotin are synthesized to some extent by intestinal
bacteria.
 Vitamins
• To be designated a vitamin, the substance must be
organic, must have a biochemical function in the body &
must be required in the diet in very small amounts.
• In addition to correcting deficiency diseases, a few
vitamins also are used as pharmacological agents in
treating a limited number of non-deficiency diseases
(megadoses & analogs). Examples, niacin for lowering
blood cholesterol & vitamin D analogs for psoriasis.
 Vitamins
• Except for vitamin K, the lipid-soluble vitamins are not
readily excreted from the body, but the water-soluble
are.
• Two exceptions are vitamins B-6 & B-12, which are
stored much longer than both the other water-soluble
vitamins & vitamin K.
 Vitamins
• An occasional lapse in the intake of water-soluble
vitamins generally causes no harm. An average person
must consume no thiamin for 10 days or no vitamin C for
20-40 days before developing the first signs & symptoms
of deficiency.
• Fat mal-absorption (cystic fibrosis, celiac disease,
Crohn’s disease) is associated with mal-absorption of the
lipid-soluble, & alcohol & some intestinal diseases can
lower the absorption of some water-soluble (e.g., folate).
Digestion & Absorption (401)
 Absorption of Vitamins (400)
• Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with dietary fat
– About 40-90% of these vitamins are absorbed when
consumed in the recommended amounts
– Cystic fibrosis, celiac disease & Crohn’s disease lower the
absorption
• Water soluble vitamins are absorbed along with
protein, carbohydrates & minerals
– About 90-100% are absorbed from diets with recommended
amounts
– Excess alcohol & intestinal diseases decreases the
absorption
 Transport of Vitamins (402)
• Dietary lipid-soluble vitamins are
transported by chylomicrons & reach liver
via chylomicron remnants & stored or
redistributed
– The exception is retinoate, that can bind to
serum albumin & be transported to liver via
portal vein
• Water-soluble vitamins are transported via
portal vein to liver & stored or redistributed
 Fat-soluble vitamins

• Term “Vitamin” is derived from the words “vital” & “amine”,

• Vitamins are vital for life and were originally thought to be
amines.
• Vitamins: are organic compounds required in the diet in small
amounts for a variety of biochemical functions.

• Vitamins are divided into2 groups:

1-water-soluble (B complex and C)
2- fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K).
 Vitamins in general

• vital
• individual units
• assist enzymes with the release of energy
• measured in micrograms (ug) or milligrams (mg)
• organic
– can be destroyed by heat, UV, oxygen
• available in food
• bioavailability
– quantity and
• digestion efficiency
• nutrition status
• other foods
• food preparation
• source
 Solubility
• water soluble
– 8 B vitamins
– vitamin C
• fat soluble
vitamins A, D, E, and K
 Water Soluble Vitamins
Thiamin Pantothenic Acid

Riboflavin Biotin
Niacin Vitamin C
Vitamin B-6
Folate
Vitamin B-12
 Essential and Harmful
Too much: vitamin A – headaches, fatigue
vitamin D – weakness, calcium in arteries
vitamin E – increased cholesterol levels

Rickets: vitamin
Blindness: vitamin
D deficiency
A deficiency

Pellagra: niacin (B
vitamin) deficiency
 Classification
• A) Fat soluble vitamins
• B) Water soluble vitamins
• These are of two types
• 1.Energy releasing
• 2.haemopietic
 Definition and Classification
• Water soluble vitamins
– Found in vegetables, fruit and grains, meat.
– Absorbed directly into the blood stream
– Not stored in the body and toxicity is rare.
Alcohol can increase elimination, smoking,
etc. cause decreased absorption.
 Definition and Classification
• Fat soluble vitamins
– Found in the fats and oils of food.
– Absorbed into the lymph and carried in blood
with protein transporters = chylomicrons.
– *Stored in liver and body fat and can become
toxic if large amounts are consumed.
 Functions of Fat-soluble
Vitamins
• Vitamin A: hormone
– Retinal: Visual pigment
– Retinol: Immune system
– Retinoate: Cell growth & proliferation
• Vitamin D: hormone
– Blood calcium regulation
• Vitamin E: general antioxidant
– Coenzyme function?
• Vitamin K: prosthetic group coenzyme
– Carboxylation of blood & bone proteins
• Carboxylation of glutamate R group
 Fat Soluble
• found in fats and oils
• enter the lymph, then the blood
• held in fatty tissues
• remain in fat storage
• may reach toxic levels
 Water Soluble Vitamins B, C
• found in water parts of food
– easily destroyed or minimized by certain
cooking processes
• move directly to blood
• freely circulate
• excesses are removed by kidney
– too many can overwhelm the system
• regular intake
The Vitamins
Fat vs. Water Soluble Vitamins

Water Soluble Fat Soluble

Absorption Directly to Lymph via CM
blood
Transport free Require carrier
Storage Circulate freely In cells with fat
Excretion In urine Stored with fat
Toxicity Possible w Likely w
supplements supplements
Requirements Every 2-3 days Every week
 Transport of Vitamins (402)
• Dietary lipid-soluble vitamins are
transported by chylomicrons & reach liver
via chylomicron remnants & stored or
redistributed
– The exception is retinoate, that can bind to
serum albumin & be transported to liver via
portal vein
• Water-soluble vitamins are transported via
portal vein to liver & stored or redistributed
THE FAT-SOLUBLE
VITAMINS
Fat-soluble Vitamins (426)
 Functions of Fat-soluble
Vitamins
• Vitamin A: hormone
– Retinal: Visual pigment
– Retinol: Immune system
– Retinoate: Cell growth & proliferation
• Vitamin D: hormone
– Blood calcium regulation
• Vitamin E: general antioxidant
– Coenzyme function?
• Vitamin K: prosthetic group coenzyme
– Carboxylation of blood & bone proteins
• Carboxylation of glutamate R group
 Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins are compounds that must be obtained from the diet, because they cannot be
synthesized de novo. They are essential for the health of humans and other
vertebrates because they are typically precursors to cofactors that function in
enzymes or proteins.
Some vitamins are water soluble, while others (A, D, E, and K) are fat soluble.
Vitamins A and D serve as precursors to hormones.
Vitamin D by itself is not biologically active. But must be converted into its active
from by a number of different enzymes in the body. One of the steps is a
nonenzymatic photochemical reaction that takes place in the skin, and that is driven
by UV-light.
An absence of vitamin D has been linked to a disease called ricketts, which was once
prevalent in cold climates where heavy clothing blocked UV light.
 Fat Soluble Vitamins
• Fat soluble vitamins include: A and carotenoids, E, K, D
• Associated with fat absorption
• Needed in small amounts
• Stored in fatty tissues
• Excess intake has toxic consequences
 Fat Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamin A (precursor – beta carotene)
– 3 forms: retinol (stored in liver), retinal, retinoic acid
– Roles in body:
• Regulation of gene expression
• Part of the visual pigment rhodopsin, maintains clarity of
cornea (yes eating carrots is good for your eyesight)
• Required for cell growth and division - epithelial cells, bones
and teeth
• Promotes development of immune cells, especially “Natural
Killer Cells”
• Antioxidant
 Sources of Vitamin A
• Retinoids - animals
• Liver, fish oils, fortified milk, eggs
• 50% of vitamin A intake is from these sources

• Carotenoids - plants
• dark green leafy
• yellow orange
• the other 50%
Snapshot 7-1, p, 219
 Overdose of a Vitamin?
• High doses of vitamin A are toxic
• HYPERVITAMINOSIS A
• 3 – 10x supplements
• Teratogenic – birth defects/spontaneous
abortion
• 3x RDA
• Carcinogenic – some feeding trials with smokers
• 3 – 10x RDA
• Fatal dose – 12 gram
 How much do we need?
• International unit (IU)-crude method of measurement
• Retinol activity equivalent (RAE) -current, more
precise method of measurement
• 1 ug of retinol = 1 RAE = 3.3 IU =12 ug beta-
carotene = 24 ug of other provitamin A

• RDA
• 900 REA men 700 REA women
• Supplement or no?
 Vitamin A

• Vitamin A is used as a collective term for the following

related compounds:

I. Retinoids: they include “retinol A1”, “retinal” and “retinoic

acid” which are also known as “preformed vitamin A”.

Retinoids are only found in food of animal origin as dairy

products, butter, eggs, liver and fish.
 Carotenoids & Retinoids (403)
• Inter-conversions of
β-carotene & various
retinoids
• The synthesis of
retinoate is a “dead
end” in metabolic
terms
Carotenoids to Retinoids (403)
• Enzymatic conversion of
carotenoids occurs in liver
or intestinal cells, forming
retinal and retinoic acid
• Provitamin A carotenoids
– Beta-carotene
– Alpha carotene
– Beta-cryptoxanthin
• Other carotenoids
– Lutein
– Lycopene
– Zeaxanthin
Vitamin A in Foods (404)
 Carotenoids Anyone? (404)
• Many veggies are rich
in provitamin A
carotenoids,
particularly, dark-
green, orange, red &
yellow colored
Vitamin A Mass & Units (405)
Retinol and caroteinoids
• Lipid-soluble red,
orange, and yellow
pigments produced by
plants
• Fewer than 10% have
vitamin A activity
• B carotene, 
carotene, 
cryptoxanthin

Fig. 10-1a, p. 327

 Vitamin A
Vitamin A is also called retinol. It functions as a hormone and as a visula pigment in the vertebrate eye.
In the eye, retinal, a derivative of vitamin A, initiates the response of rod and cone cells of the retina to light,
producing a neuronal signal to the brain.
B-carotene is the precursor to vitamin A, and is cleaved to give 2 molecules of retinol. Retinal (11-cis) is formed by
oxidation of retinol. When light strikes retinal (bound to the protein opsin), a cis to trans isomerization occurs, which
results in a conformational change of the rhodopsin molecule. This sends an electrical signal to the brain.
 H3C CH3 H3C H3C

OH

CH3

Retinol
 II. Carotenoids:

they include “B-carotene”,

which can undergo oxidative cleavage in the body to give 2
molecules of retinol.
However, the vitamin A activity of
B-carotene is 1/6 of that of retinol.

Carotenoids are known as “provitamin A”. They are found in

carrots, dark green leafy vegetables and many fruits.
• Biomedical impotance of vitamin A:
1. Vitamin A is required in the production of
rhodopsin, the visual pigment used in low
light( dim)levels for dark vision
The vision cycle
 Functions of Vitamin A
• Vitamin A: hormone
– Retinal: Visual pigment
– Retinol: Immune system
– Retinoate: Cell growth & proliferation
• Vitamin A analogs in dermatology
– Retin-A & Accutane to treat acne & psoriasis
– Medications to lessen the damage from
excess sun & UV-light exposure
 Possible Carotenoid Functions
(409)
• Prevention of cardiovascular disease
– Antioxidant capabilities
– ≥5 servings/day of fruits & vegetables
• Cancer prevention
– Antioxidant capabilities
– Lung, oral & prostate cancers
– Studies indicate that vitamin A-containing foods are more
protective than supplements
• Age-related macular degeneration
• Cataracts
• In general, foods rich in vitamin A & other
phytochemicals are advised rather than supplements
 Vitamin A Toxicity (410)
• Consuming the right amount of vitamin A is critical to
overall health
• A very low (deficient) or very high (toxic) vitamin A (as
retinoids) can produce harmful symptoms & can even
lead to death
Vitamin A deficiency
common in developing countries but is rarely
seen in developed countries.
Approximately 250,000 to 500,000
malnourished children in the developing
world get blind each year from deficiency of
vitamin A.
1- Night blindness is one of the first signs of
vitamin A deficiency.
Vitamin A deficiency contributes to blindness
by causing keratinization of the cornea and
damaging of the retina
 Vitamin A
Vitamin A is also called retinol. It functions as a hormone and as a visula pigment in the vertebrate eye.
In the eye, retinal, a derivative of vitamin A, initiates the response of rod and cone cells of the retina to light,
producing a neuronal signal to the brain.
B-carotene is the precursor to vitamin A, and is cleaved to give 2 molecules of retinol. Retinal (11-cis) is formed by
oxidation of retinol. When light strikes retinal (bound to the protein opsin), a cis to trans isomerization occurs, which
results in a conformational change of the rhodopsin molecule. This sends an electrical signal to the brain.
 Vitamin A Deficiency (412)
• Golden rice was
genetically engineered
to synthesize β
carotene
• This rice was
developed for use as
a fortified food in
areas of the world that
have limited access to
vitamin A-rich foods
• Biomedical impotance of vitamin A:
1. Vitamin A is required in the production of
rhodopsin, the visual pigment used in low
light( dim)levels for dark vision
2-Vitamin A is essential for the correct functioning
of epithelial cells and mucus secretion.
In Vitamin A deficiency, mucus-secreting cells are
replaced by keratin-producing cells leading to a
very dry rough skin (hyperkratosis).
Retinoic acid (tretinoin) is used topically in the
treatment of psoriasis and acne
 ‘‘Outer limiting
Photoreceptor membrane’’
(rod) cell
Müller cell
Outer
segment

Inner
segment Capillary

Pigment epithelium Outer of photoreceptor

Nucleus (rod) cell Segment
Functions: Vitamin A
• Vision
• Cell differentiation, growth, reproduction
• Bone development
• Immune system Fig. 10-7, p. 334
Fig. 10-8, p. 334
Functions: Vitamin A
•Vision
•Cell differentiation, growth, reproduction
•Bone development
•Immune system
Functions: Vitamin A
•Vision
•Cell differentiation, growth, reproduction
•Bone development
•Immune system

Function: Carotenoids
• Antioxidants for singlet oxygen;
Lycopene > vitamin E >  carotene >
cryptoxanthin > zeaxanthin,  carotene >
lutein
(also work better when used together)
• Antioxidant for lipid peroxides (works with
vitamin E)
• Lower incidence of atherosclerosis through
prevention of oxidation of LDLs
Interaction with other nutrients:
• Vitamins E and K (inversely related; high A, low E and K)
• Zinc and iron
• Protein
Excretion: most in urine as oxoretinoic acid, small amounts in expired air, some in feces

Fig. 10-10, p. 339

3-Vitamin A has an important role in
the differentiation of the cells of the
immune system.

Therefore, mild vitamin A deficiency

leads to increased susceptibility to
microbial infections

4-Vitamin A is essential for normal

growth and reproduction
 Toxicity of vitamin A:

• Excessive intake of vitamin A produces a toxic

syndrome known as
“hypervitaminosisA”. (loss of hair, ICP, Brittle nails,
headache , vomiting)

• In addition, pregnant women should not ingest

excessive amounts of vitamin A because it can
cause fetal abnormalities
 Fat Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamin A
– Toxicities (RetinA/Accutaine, single large
doses of supplements, eating excessive
amounts of liver) cause:
• Fragile RBCs, hemorrhage
• Bone pain, fractures
• Abdominal pain and diarrhea
• Blurred vision
• Dry skin, hair loss
• Liver enlargement