Professional Documents
Culture Documents
University of
Engineering and Technology
Peshawar
Topics to be Addressed
Types of loads
Wind Load
Earthquake Load
Load Combinations
CE-409: Lecture 03
Feeling Responsibility
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
Determination of loads for which a given structure
may be designed for is a difficult problem.
Questions to be Answered:
What loads may structure be called upon during
its lifetime?
In what combinations these loads occur?
The probability that a specific live load be
exceeded at some time during lifetime of
structure?
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
Types of Loads
Three broad categories:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
1. Dead load
Dead Loads consist of the weight of all
materials and fixed equipment
incorporated into the building or other
structure. (UBC Section 1602)
Weight
of structure
Weight of permanent machinery etc.
Dead loads can be reasonably estimated if the
member dimensions and material densities are
known.
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Live loads are those loads produced by the
use and occupancy of the building or other
structure and do not include dead load,
construction load, or environmental loads.
Weight of people, furniture, machinery,
goods in building.
Weight of traffic on bridge
CE-409: Lecture 03
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
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Types of Loads
2. Live load: (UBC Table 16-A)
Live loads for various occupancies
Occupancy
Live load,psf
Residential
40
Libraries(reading room)
60
Mercantile
75-125
Heavy manufacturing
125-150
Light storage
120-125
Heavy storage
250 minimum
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Types of Loads
2. Live load:
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Types of loads
3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
and flood load.
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R = 23.1(1+D/L)
R = reduction, percent
r
= rate of reduction = 0.08% for floors
A = area supported by floor or member
D = dead load, psf
L = basic live load,psf
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Wind load
Bernoullis equation for stream flow is used to
determine local pressure at stagnation point,
considering air to be non-viscous &
incompressible.
q = (v2/2)
q: pressure
: mass density of air
v: velocity
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Wind load
Resultant wind pressure on body depends upon
pattern of flow around it.
Pressure vary from point to point on surface,
which depends on shape & size of body.
Resultant wind pressure is expressed as:
PD = CDA(v2/2)
PL= CLA(v2/2)
CD : Drag coefficient
CL : Lift coefficient
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Wind load
For buildings bridges and the like pressure is
expressed in terms of Shape Factor CS (pressure
coefficient)
P = CSq = CS(v2/2)
Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf
P=0.00256CSV2
CE-409: Lecture 03
V: mph
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Wind load
Measured wind velocities are averages of
fluctuating velocities encountered during a finite
time.
In US average of velocities recorded during the
time it takes a horizontal column of air 1 mile long
to pass a fixed point.
Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
Annual extreme mile is the largest of the daily
maximums.
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Wind load
Wind pressure to be used in design should be
based on a wind velocity having a specific
mean recurrence interval.
The flow of air close to ground is slowed by
surface roughness, which depends on density,
size and height of buildings, trees, vegetation
etc.
Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above ground
is used as the basic values for design purpose.
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Wind load
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Wind load
Shape factor varies considerably with proportion of
structure & horizontal angle of incidence of the wind.
CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is 0.9
CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape
factor 1.2 to 1.5
Commonly used is 1.3
CS for Side walls -0.4 to 0.8
CS for roof 0.5 to 0.8
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Wind load
Wind forces on trussed structures e.g. bridges, transmission
towers, beam bridges, girder bridges etc. difficult to assess
because of leeward parts of structure.
Recommended coefficients for walls of buildings,
gabled roofs, arched roofs, roofs over unenclosed
structures(stadium), chimneys, tanks, signs,
transmission towers etc. are given in ASCE 7-02
Wind pressures specified by building codes include
allowance for gust and shape factors.
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Wind load
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Wind load
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Wind load
25
P CeCqqsIw
UBC (20-1)
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P=0.00256CSV2
V: mph
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= 33.28 psf
Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
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P CeCqqsIw
UBC (20-1)
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P CeCqqsIw
Pwindward = 15.56 psf
Pleeward = 9.73 psf
Ptotal
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= 25.29 psf
Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Earthquake loads are necessary to
consider in earthquake prone regions.
Earthquake waves are of two types:
Body
waves
Surface
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waves
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
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Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
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Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily
depends upon:
Mass
stiffness
natural period of vibration
damping characteristics of structure
location from epicenter
topography & geological formation.
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Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
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Earthquake Load
Response Modification
Factor
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Earthquake Load
Response Modification
Factor
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Earthquake Load
41
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V=Ft + Fx
Concentrated force Ft at top shall determined by:
Ft = 0.07 T V
Ft need not exceed 0.25V and may be taken as 0 if T is 0.7 or
less.
Force Fx at each level including level n:
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46
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P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be
exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.
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P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%
There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed
to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g
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P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%
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Impact Load
Spring Example
It is customary to express Impact load as
percentage of static force.
Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
According to AISC live load on hangers
supporting floor and balcony construction should
be increased by one-third for impact.
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Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75W
3. 0.75D + 0.75L + 0.75E
D = dead load
L = Live load
W = Wind load
E = Earthquake load
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Load Combinations
ASD Load combinations
You can use following load combinations with the
parameter ALSTRINC (Allowable Strength
Increase) to account for the 1/3 allowable
increase for the wind and seismic load
1. 1.0D + 1.0L
2. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0W
3. 1.0D + 1.0L + 1.0E
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D +1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E
D
= Dead load
Lr =
L = Live load
= Snow Load
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W = Wind load
E
= Earthquake load
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
Why only Dead load in equation (1) ?
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
Why negative sign in equation (6) ?
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Load Combinations
LRFD Load Combinations
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Load Combinations
Example: Roof beams W16X31, spaced 7ft-0in center-to-center,
support a superimposed dead load of 40 psf. Code specified roof
loads are 30 psf downward (due to roof live load, snow, or rain)
and 20 psf upward or downward (due to wind). Determine the
critical loading for LRFD.
D = 31 plf + 40 psf X 7.0 ft = 311 plf
L=0
(Lr or S or R) = 30 psf X 7.0 ft = 210 plf
W = 20 psf X 7.0 ft = 140 plf
E=0
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Load Combinations
1) 1.4D
1.4(311 plf) = 435 plf
2) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0.5(210 plf) = 478 plf
3) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
1.2(311 plf) + 1.6 (210 plf) +0.8(140 plf) = 821 plf
4) 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2(311 plf) + 1.3(140 plf) + 0 +0.5(210 plf) = 660 plf
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Load Combinations
5) 1.2D 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
1.2(311 plf) + 0 + 0 + 0.2(210 plf) = 415 plf
6) 0.9D (1.3W or 1.0E)
a) 0.9 (311 plf) + 1.3 (140 plf) = 462 plf
b) 0.9(311 plf) - 1.3(140 plf) = 98 plf
The critical factored load combination for design is the third, with
a total factored load of 821 plf.
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Thank You!
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