Linear Control system

When a number of elements are combined together to

form a system to produce desired output then the

system is referred as control system. As this system
controls the output, it is so referred. Each element
connected to the system has its own effect on the
output.
A control system is a system of devices or set of
devices, that manages, commands, directs or
regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s)
to achieve desire results. In other words the definition
of control system can be rewritten as A control
system is a system, which controls other system.
For example, a furnace produces heat as a result of the
flow of the fuel. In this process, the flow of the fuel is
the input, and heat to be controlled is the output.

Disturbances
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely

affect the value of the output of a system. If

disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.
Consider for example the cruise control system for a
car, where the disturbances are the gravity forces
caused by changes of the slope of the road. These
disturbances vary slowly because the slope changes
slowly when you drive along a road.
A device in a motor vehicle which can be switched
on to maintain a selected constant speed without
the use of the accelerator pedal.

Linear Control system

In order to understand the linear control system, we should

know the principle of superposition. The principle of superposition

theorem includes two the important properties and they are
explained below:
Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous, if we
multiply input with some constant A then output will also be
multiplied by the same value of constant (i.e. A).
Additivity: Suppose we have a system S and we are giving the
input to this system as a1 for the first time and we are getting
output as b1 corresponding to input a1. On second time we are
giving input a2 and correspond to this we are getting output as
b2. Now suppose this time we are giving input as summation of
the previous inputs ( i.e. a1 + a2 ) and corresponding to this input
suppose we are getting output as (b 1 + b2) then we can say that
system S is following the property of additivity. Now we are able
to define the linear control systems as those types of control
systems which follow the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

Examples of Linear Control System

Consider a purely resistive network with a

constant dc source. This circuit follows the

principle of homogeneity and additivity. All
the undesired effects are neglected and
assuming ideal behavior of each element in
the network, we say that we will get linear
voltage and current characteristic. This is
the example of linear control system.
Non-linear Systems:
We can simply define non linear control
system as all those system which do not
follow the principle of homogeneity. In
practical life all the systems are non-linear
system.

Examples of Non-linear System

A well known example of non-linear system is
magnetization curve or no load curve of a dc
machine. We will discuss briefly no load curve
of dc machines here: No load curve gives us
the relationship between the air gap flux and
the field winding mmf. It is very clear from the
curve given below that in the beginning there
is a linear relationship between winding mmf
and the air gap flux but after this, saturation
has come which shows the non linear behavior
of the curve or characteristics of the non
linear control system.

Types of Control system

There are two main types of control system. They are

as follow Open loop control system and Closed loop

control system:

Open Loop Control System:

A control system in which the control action is
totally independent of output of the system then
it is called open loop control system. Manual
control system is also an open loop control
system. Fig. shows the block diagram of open
loop control system in which process output is
totally independent of controller action.

Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System

Volume on Stereo System Volume is adjusted

manually irrespective of output volume level.

Light Switch lamps glow whenever light switch is
on irrespective of light is required or not
Automatic Washing Machine This machine runs
according to the pre-set time irrespective of
washing is completed or not.
Electric Hand Drier Hot air (output) comes out as
long as you keep your hand under the machine,
irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
Timer Based Clothes Drier This machine dries
wet clothes for pre adjusted time, it does not
matter how much the clothes are dried.

Closed Loop Control System (feedback control):

Control system in which the output has an effect on the

input quantity in such a manner that the input quantity

will adjust itself based on the output generated is called
closed loop control system.
Open loop control system can be converted in to closed
loop control system by providing a feedback. This
feedback automatically makes the suitable changes in
the output due to external disturbance. In this way
closed loop control system is called automatic control
system. Figure below shows the block diagram of closed
loop control system in which feedback is taken from
output and fed in to input.

Practical Examples of Closed Loop(feedback) Control System

Automatic Electric Iron Heating elements are controlled

by output temperature of the iron.

Servo Voltage Stabilizer Voltage controller operates
depending upon output voltage of the system.
An Air Conditioner An air conditioner functions
depending upon the temperature of the room.
Water Level Controller Input water is controlled by water level of reservoir
reservoir.

Block Diagrams of Control system:

Fundamentals

A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation

of the cause-and-effect relationship between the input

and output of a physical system. The simplest form of
the block diagram is the single block, with one input and
one output as shown below;
block
Input
Output
The basic configuration of a simple closed-loop

(feedback) control system with a single input and a

single output (abbreviated SISO) is illustrated in Fig.


The
plant (or process, or controlled system) g2 is
the system, subsystem, process, or object
controlled by the feedback control system.
The controlled output c is the output variable of the
plant, under the control of the feedback control
system.
The forward path is the transmission path from the
summing point to the controlled output c.
The feed forward (control) elements , are the
components of the forward path that generate the
control signal U or m applied to the plant. Note:
Feed forward elements typically include
controller(s), compensator( s) (or equalization
elements), and/or amplifiers.
The control signal U (or manipulated variable m) is
the output signal of the feed forward element
applied as input to the plant .

 The feedback path is the transmission path

from the controlled output c back to the

summing point.
The feedback elements (sensors, compensator
and controller) h establish the relationship
between the controlled output c and primary
feedback signal b.
The reference input r is an external signal
applied to the feedback control system, usually
at the first summing point.
The actuating (or error) signal is the reference
input signal minus or plus the primary
feedback signal. In an open-loop system, which
has no feedback, actuating/error signal is equal
to r.
Negative feedback means summing point is
subtractor (e= r-b)

Automatic bottle filling mechanism(block

diagram example)
In the system shown, conveyor belt is driven by the

controller as well as valve position is also controlled by

the controller.
When empty bottle comes at the specific position,
weight sensor senses the weight and gives signal to
controller. Controller stops conveyor movement and
opens the valve so bottle starts getting filled. When
required level is achieved, again weight sensor sensing
the proper weight sends a signal to controller which
sends signals to start movement of belt and also closing
the valve position.

Summing Point of Block Diagram:

Instead of applying single input signal to

different blocks, there may be such situation
where different input signals are applied to same
block. Here, resultant input signal is the
summation of all input signals applied.
Summation of input signals is represented by a
point called summing point which is shown in the
figure below by crossed circle. Here R(s), X(s)
and Y(s) are the input signals. It is necessary to
indicate the fine specifying the input signal
entering a summing point in the block diagram
of control system.

,
,

Takeoff point
When we need to apply one or same input to more than

one blocks, we use take off point. A point where the

input gets more than one paths to propagate. This is to
be noted that the input does not get divided at a point,
hence input propagates through all the paths connected
to that point without affecting its value. Hence, by take
off point same input signals can be applied to more than
one systems or blocks. Representation of a common
input signal to more than one blocks of control system is
done by a common point as shown in the figure below
with point X.

Transfer function
The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant,

differential equation system is defined as the

ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of
the input (driving function) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time-invariant system
defined by the following differential equation:

In the figure below, there are two elements

with transfer function Gone(s) and Gtwo(s). Where

Gone(s) is the transfer function of first element
and Gtwo(s) is the transfer function of second
element of the system. In addition to that, the
diagram also shows there is a feedback path
through which output signal C(s) is fed back
and compared with the input R(s) and the
difference between input and output E(s) =
R(s) C(s) is acting as actuating signal or error
signal.

where, C(s) is the output and R(s) is the input of that

particular block.

A complex control system consists of several blocks. Each

of them has its own transfer function. But overall transfer
function of the system is the ratio of transfer function of
final output to transfer function of initial input of the
system. This overall transfer function of the system can
be obtained by simplifying the control system by
combining this individual blocks, one by one. Technique of
combining of these blocks is referred as block diagram
reduction technique. For successful implementation of
this technique, some rules for block diagram reduction to
be followed. Let us discuss these rules, one by one for
reduction of block diagram of control system.

Cascade Blocks
When several systems or control blocks are
connected in cascaded manner, the
transfer function of the entire system will
be the product of transfer function of all
individual blocks. Here it also to be
remembered that the output of any block
will not be affected by the presence of
other blocks in the cascaded system.

Cascade Blocks

Parallel Blocks
When same input signal is applied different
blocks and the output from each of them are
added in a summing point for taking final
output of the system then over all transfer
function of the system will be the algebraic
sum of transfer function of all individual blocks.

Parallel Blocks

Shifting of Take off Point

If same signal is applied to more than one system, then the

signal is represented in the system by a point called take

off point. Principle of shifting of take off point is that, it
may be shifted either side of a block but final output of the
branches connected to the take off point must be unchanged. The take off point can be shifted either sides of
the block.

In the figure above the take off point is shifted from

position A to B. The signal R(s) at take off point A will

become G(s)R(s) at point B. Hence another block of inverse
of transfer function G(s) is to be put on that path to get
R(s) again.

Shifting of Summing Point

Let us examine the shifting of summing point

from a position before a block to a position

after a block. There are two input signals R(s)
and X(s) entering in a summing point at
position A. The output of the summing point is
R(s) X(s). The resultant signal is the input of
a control system block of transfer function G(s)
and the final output of the system is;

Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

Feedback Loops
Positive feedback loops enhance or amplify changes;

this tends to move a system away from its equilibrium

state and make it more unstable.
Negative feedbacks tend to dampen or buffer
changes.
A positive connection is one in which a change
(increase or decrease) in some variable results in the
same type of change (increase or decrease)in a second
variable. The positive connection in the figure below for
a cooling coffee cup implies that the hotter the coffee is
the faster it cools. The variables Tc and Tr are coffee and
room temperature respectively.
The negative connection in the figure below for a
cooling coffee cup implies a positive cooling rate makes
the coffee temperature drop.