MODULE INSPECTION OF HDG ON

STEEL

Prepared By :
Binsar Simanjuntak
QHSE MR
Sources from AGA Inspector Certification course for HDG14/03/2011
on Steel

This course is intended to train individuals on the proper inspection

techniques and requirements for hot-dip galvanized steel products.
There are four sections in this course:
1.
Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process
2.
Galvanizing Standards
3.
Types of Inspection
4.
Repair
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to recognize
specification requirements and perform all inspection steps to ensure
conformance with the requirements. Additionally, any inspector who
completes the course, and passes the test (80% or better) will receive a
printable Certificate of Completion and will be listed on the AGA website
as an inspector.
Disclaimer
The information contained in this course has been compiled by the
American Galvanizers Association (AGA), a not-for-profit trade
association whose members represent the after-fabrication hot-dip
galvanizing industry throughout the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
The AGA makes no endorsement and offers no evaluation of any
vendors products, whether listed here or not.

The term hot-dip galvanizing is defined as

the process of immersing iron or steel in a
bath of liquid zinc to produce a corrosion
resistant, multi-layered coating of zinc-iron
alloy and zinc metal. The coating is
produced as the result of a metallurgical
reaction between the liquid zinc and the iron
in the steel. The coating forms an equal
thickness on all surfaces immersed in the
galvanizing kettle. This process, similar to
the one seen in Figure 1, has been in use
since 1742
and has provided long-lasting, maintenancefree corrosion protection at a reasonable

The first step in the hot-dip galvanizing process is

intended to obtain the cleanest possible steel
surface by removing all of the oxides and other
contaminating residues. This is achieved by first
hanging the steel using chains, wires, or specially
designed dipping racks, as seen in Figure 3, to move
the parts through the process. There are three
cleaning steps to prepare the steel for galvanizing.
Degreasing/Caustic Cleaning
First the steel is immersed in an acid degreasing
bath or caustic solution in order to remove the dirt,
oil, and grease from the surface of the steel. After
degreasing the steel is rinsed with water.
Pickling
Next the steel is immersed in an acid tank filled with
either hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, as seen in Figure
4, which removes oxides and mill scale in a process
called pickling. Once all oxidation has been
removed from the steel, it is again rinsed with water
and sent to the final stage of the surface
preparation.

Fluxing
The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of all
oxidation developed since the pickling of the steel and to
create a protective coating to prevent the steel from any
oxidizing before entering the galvanizing kettle.
One type of flux is contained in a separate tank, is slightly
acidic, and contains a combination of zinc chloride and
ammonium chloride.
Another type of flux, top flux, floats on top of the liquid
zinc in the galvanizing kettle, but serves the same
purpose.
After being immersed in the degreasing, pickling, and
fluxing tanks, the surface of the steel is completely free of
any oxides or any other contaminants that might inhibit
the reaction of the iron and liquid zinc in the galvanizing
kettle.

Once the steel has been completely cleaned, it

is ready for immersion in the liquid zinc. The
galvanizing
kettle contains zinc specified to ASTM B 6, a
document that specifies any one of three
different grades of zinc that are each at least
98% pure. Sometimes other metals may be
added to the zinc melt in order to promote
certain desirable properties in the galvanized
coating.
The galvanizing kettle, like the one seen in
Figure 5, is typically operated at a temperature
ranging from 820-860 F (438-460 C), at which
point the zinc is in its liquid state. The steel
products are immersed into the galvanizing
kettle and remain in the kettle until the
temperature of the steel has reached the
temperature required to form a hot-dip
galvanized coating. Once the interdiffusion
reaction of iron and zinc is completed, the steel

Figure 6: Photomicrograph of the

galvanized coating

When the steel is removed from the galvanizing

kettle, it may receive a post-treatment to
enhance the galvanized coating.
One of the most commonly used treatments is
quenching. The quench tank contains mostly
water but may also have chemicals added to
create a passivation layer that protects the
galvanized
steel
during
storage
and
transportation. Other finishing steps include
removal of zinc drips, or icicles, by manual
grinding them off.

The estimated time to first maintenance for a hot-dip galvanized

coating that experiences common atmospheric exposure can be
seen in Figure 7. Time to first maintenance is defined as the time
to 5% rusting of the substrate steel. The time to first
maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly proportional
to the zinc coating thickness.

Figure 7: Time to first maintenance chart for Hot Dip

Galvanized coating

 There are many other types of corrosion protection, such as coating

steel with oil, grease, tar, asphalt, polymer coatings or paints, or
corrosion protection materials such as stainless and weathering steel,
sacrificial anodes, plating systems and impressed current systems.
These are some of the most commonly used corrosion protection
materials and systems and are sometimes used together with hot-dip
galvanized steel. Most of these materials rely on barrier protection,
while some of them rely on cathodic properties to prevent corrosion of
the steel.
The most effective type of corrosion protection that provides both
barrier and cathodic protection is hot-dip galvanizing.
There are also a wide variety of zinc coatings used for corrosion
protection. Many people use galvanizing to describe all of these
coatings, but each has its own unique characteristics and
performance. These coatings have several applications based on their
properties and respective thicknesses. The corrosion protection offered
by a zinc coating is linearly related to its coating thickness.
The most commonly used coatings are hot-dip galvanized, metalized,
zinc-rich paint, galvannealed or galvanized sheet, and electroplated.
The relative thickness for each of these zinc coatings can be seen in
the photomicrograph (Figure 8). Below is a brief explanation of each

Metallizing
Metalizing is the general name for the technique of spraying a metal
coating on the surface of non-metallic or metallic objects. This
process is accomplished by feeding zinc in either wire or powder
form into a heated gun, where it is melted and sprayed onto the
surface to be coated using combustion gases and/or auxiliary
compressed air to provide the necessary velocity. The limitations of
this process include a difficulty in reaching recesses, cavities, and
hollow spaces, even coating thickness and cost.
Zinc-Rich Paint
Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a
brush or spray and usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Paints
containing zinc dust are classified as organic or inorganic, depending
on the binder that they contain, and are discussed in more detail

Continuous Galvanizing
The continuous galvanizing process is a hot-dip
process where a steel sheet, strip, or wire is
cleaned, pickled, and fluxed on a processing line
approximately 500 feet (154 m) in length, and
running at speeds between 100 to 600 feet per
minute (30 to 185 m per minute).
In the coating of a steel sheet or
strip, the galvanizing kettle contains
a small amount of aluminum, which
suppresses the formation of the zinciron alloys, resulting in a coating that
is mostly pure zinc. A postgalvanizing, in-line heat treatment
process known as galvannealing can
also be used to produce a fully
alloyed coating. Galvannealing is
usually ordered by those wanting to
paint over the zinc surface because
the presence of alloy layers on the
steel
surface
promotes
paint

Electroplating
The electroplating process, or zinc-plated coating, has a
dull gray color, a matte finish, and a thin coating that
ranges up to one mil (25 m) thick.
This very thin coating restricts the use of zinc-plated
products to indoor exposures.
The specification ASTM B 633 lists the classes of zincplated steel coatings as Fe/Zn 5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn 12, and
Fe/Zn 25, where Fe represents iron and Zn represents
zinc, while the number indicates the coating thickness in
microns.
The main uses for this type of coating include screws,
light switch plates, and other small products or fasteners.

There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip
galvanizing in order to produce a high-quality coating. The most
commonly used specifications design engineers and fabricators should
become familiar with in order to promote a high-quality coating and
ensure their steel design is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing are:
ASTM A 123/A 123M: Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip
Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products Single pieces of
steel or fabrications with different types of steel products
ASTM A 153/A 153M: Standard Specification for Zinc Coating
(Hot-Dip) on Iron and Hardware Fasteners and small products that
are centrifuged after galvanizing to remove excess zinc
ASTM A 767/A 767M: Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Reinforcing steel or rebar
ASTM A 780: Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and
Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip
Galvanized Coatings
Touch-up procedures for coating bare spots on an existing hot-dip
galvanized product

Other commonly used specifications in the hot-dip galvanizing industry

include:
ASTM A 143/A 143M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against
Embrittlement of Hot-Dip
Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting
Embrittlement
ASTM A 384/A 384M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against
Warpage and Distortion
During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
ASTM A 385/A 385M: Standard Practice for Providing HighQuality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip)
ASTM B 6: Standard Specification for Zinc
ASTM D 6386: Standard Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip
Galvanized) Coated Iron and
Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Paint
ASTM E 376: Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness
by Magnetic-Field or
Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic) Examination Methods
CAN/CSA G 164: Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped
Articles
ISO 1461 Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and
Steel Assemblies Specifications and Test Methods

The ASTM A 123/A 123M specification covers

individual steel pieces as well as assemblies of
various classes of material. The four material
categories covered in ASTM A 123/A 123M include
structural steel and plates, strips and bars, pipes
and tubing, and wires. A fabrication can have more
than one material category such as a frame
assembly. Any combination of these products can be
assembled into a single
fabrication and then can be hot-dip galvanized, as
seen in Figure 11.
It is the responsibility of the designer and fabricator
to ensure the product has been properly designed
and built before the hot-dip galvanizing process. The
galvanizer should be made aware of any necessary
special instructions or requests in advance of
shipping the materials to the galvanizing plant.
These requests should be stated on the purchase
order for the hot-dip galvanizing. It is the
responsibility of the galvanizer to ensure compliance
with the specifications as long as the product has
been designed and fabricated in accordance with the

The ASTM specifications A143/A143M, ASTM A384/A384M, and ASTM A

385 provide guidelines for preparing products for hot-dip galvanizing.
The requirements listed in ASTM A 123/A 123M include coating
thickness, finish, appearance, and adherence. These are each defined
below and discussed in more detail later in this course.
ASTM A 123/A 123M Requirements

Coating Thickness / Weight dependent upon material

category and steel thickness
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits
and gross dross inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc
deposits that interfere with intended use

Adherence the entire coating should have a strong

adherence throughout the service life of galvanized steel
The hot-dip galvanized coating is intended for products fabricated into
their final shape that will be exposed to corrosive environmental
conditions. Once a product has been hot-dip galvanized, any further
fabrication, which very rarely occurs, may have negative effects on the
corrosion protection of the coating. The coating grade is defined as the
required thickness of the coating and is given in microns. All
coating thickness requirements in specification ASTM A 123/A 123M, as

The time to first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly

proportional to the thickness of the hot-dip galvanized coating. With all
other variables held constant, the thicker the zinc coating, the longer
the life of the steel. The aim of the finish and appearance requirements
is to ensure no coatings have problem areas that are deficient of zinc or
have surface defects that would interfere with the intended use of the
product. In addition, the coating should have a strong adherence
throughout the service of the hot-dip galvanized steel.

The specification ASTM A 153/A 153M applies to hardware products such

as castings, fasteners, rolled, pressed and forged products, and
miscellaneous threaded objects that will be centrifuged, spun, or
otherwise handled to remove the zinc, as seen in Figure 12.

The requirements for ASTM A 153/A 153M are very similar to those
reported earlier for ASTM A123/A123M, except for the addition of
threaded products and embrittlement requirements.

ASTM A 153/A 153M Requirements

Coating Thickness/Weight depends on the material category
and steel thickness, values are listed in Table 3
Threaded Products areas with threads are not subject to
the coating thickness requirement
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform
Embrittlement high tensile strength fasteners (>150ksi)
and castings can be subject to embrittlement

Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux

deposits and gross dross inclusions as well as having no heavy
zinc deposits that interfere with intended use

Adherence the entire coating should have a strong

adherence
throughout
life of
galvanized
steelof
There
are fabrication
steps the
thatservice
may impair
thehot-dip
corrosion
protection
the hot-dip galvanized coating, however, flaking or damage to the
coating because of this is not case for rejection. In all cases, good steel
selection results in the formation of a higher quality coating and finish
on the product. The corrosion protection coating for threaded products is
applied after the product has been fabricated and further fabrication
may compromise the corrosion protection system. The one exception to
this rule is the internal threads of a nut that should be over-tapped after
the coating is applied in order to accommodate the coating thickness
change on the thread of the bolts. In this case, the zinc on the bolt

There are certain fabrication techniques that can induce stresses into
the steel and lead to brittle failure. There are precautions given in ASTM
A 143/A 143M that should be taken in order to prevent embrittlement. In
addition, selecting steels with appropriate chemistries can help prevent
embrittlement of malleable castings. A reproduction and summary of the
table given in ASTM A 153/A 153M, which is seen in Table 3, gives the
different classes of products and the minimum coating thickness
required by the specification.

The specification ASTM A 767/A 767M is applicable exclusively to the

hot-dip galvanizing of reinforcing steel, otherwise known as rebar, as
seen in Figure 13, and is applicable to all types of rebar, both smooth
and deformed. However, wire is not included.

The requirements in ASTM A 767/A 767M are also intended to produce a

high quality zinc coating for corrosion protection.

ASTM A 767/A 767M Requirements

Identity the galvanizer is responsible for consistent material
tracking if necessary
Coating Thickness/Weight material category and steel
thickness
Chromating to prevent reaction between cement and
recently galvanized material
Finish continuous, smooth, and uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits
and gross dross inclusions as well as having no heavy zinc
deposits that interfere with intended use
Adherence should be tightly adherent throughout intended
use rebar
of theisproduct
Once
delivered to be hot-dip galvanized, it is the galvanizers
responsibility
Bend Diameters
flaking
cracking
to fabrication
after
to track
and and
maintain
the due
identity
of the product
the hot-dip
process
are not
rejectable
throughout
the galvanizing
hot-dip galvanizing
process
until
shipment of the finished
Once
rebar
is delivered
to be hot-dip
galvanized,
it is thein
galvanizers
product.
Again,
the analogous
coating
requirements
the areas of
responsibility
to track
and and
maintain
coating
thickness,
finish,
adherence are present in ASTM A 767/A
767M. However, this single product specification introduces a few new
requirements that apply solely to hot-dip galvanized rebar. In ASTM A
767/A 767M, the coating requirement is given in mass of the zinc
coating per surface area. A summary of the table given in ASTM A
767/A 767M and the minimum required coating thickness / weight of the

This specification also introduces a new requirement to the galvanized

coating known as chromating. Newly galvanized steel can react with wet
cement and potentially form hydrogen gas as a product. As this evolved
hydrogen gas travels through the concrete matrix toward the surface,
voids can be created which weaken the bonding with the concrete or
disturb the smoothness of the concrete surface. In order to help prevent
and suppress this reaction, hot-dip galvanized rebar is dipped into a
weak chromate quench solution after being removed from the
galvanizing kettle. The finish requirement for rebar is along the same
lines as the finish requirements given in specifications ASTM A 123/A
123M and A 153/A 153M. The coating is intended for corrosion
protection, so deficiencies that affect the coatings corrosion
performance are grounds for rejection. In addition, since rebar is
handled frequently during its installation, any tears or sharp spikes that

Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. The

table below gives recommendations for bend diameters based upon the
bare steel bar diameter before coating. Steel reinforcing bars that are
bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend
diameter equal to or greater than the specified values. However, steel
reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than specified in Table
5 providing they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F
(480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.

There are Canadian and international specifications that could be used

to specify hot-dip galvanizing on a project. The differences in these
specifications and the ASTM specifications are minimal, and for the most
part, only differ slightly in the minimum coating thickness/weight
required for each type and thickness of product being hot-dip
galvanized.
CAN/CSA-G164 Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles
Scope
1.This standard specifies the requirements for zinc coating (galvanizing) by
the hot-dipping process on iron and steel products made from rolled,
pressed, or forged shapes such as structural sections, plates, bars, pipes,
or sheets 1 mm thick or thicker.
2.Applies to both unfabricated and fabricated products such as assembled
steel products, structural steel fabrications, large hollow sections bent or
welded before galvanizing, and wire work fabricated from uncoated steel
wire.
3.Applies to steel forgings and iron castings that are to be galvanized 3.
separately or in batches.
4.Does not apply to continuous galvanizing of chain link fence fabric, wire,
sheet, and strip. Does not apply to pipe and conduit that are normally hot
dip galvanized by a continuous or semicontinuous automatic process.
5.The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The

ISO 1461 Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and

Steel Articles
Scope: This Standard specifies the general properties of and methods of
test for coatings applied by hot dipping in zinc (containing not more than
2% of other metals) on fabricated iron and steel articles.
It does not apply to:
1. Sheet and wire continuously hot dip galvanized;
2. Tube and pipe hot dip galvanized in automatic process;
3. Hot dip galvanizing products for which specific standards exist and
which may include additional requirements or requirements different
from those of this European Standard.
4. After-treatment/overcoating of hot dip galvanized articles is not
covered by this standard.
NOTE Individual product standards can incorporate this
standard for the coating by quoting its number, or may
incorporate it with modifications specific to the product.

In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized

steel will be discussed. The various inspections are used to verify the
necessary specifications for the galvanized product are met. These
techniques for each test method are specified in ASTM A 123/A 123M, A
153/A 153M, or A 767/A 767M, depending upon the type of product
being inspected. The most common inspections, listed below, range
from a simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine
embrittlement or adhesion.
Coating Thickness magnetic gauges, optical microscopy
Coating Weight weigh-galvanize-weigh, and weigh-stripweigh
Finish and Appearance visual inspection
Additional Tests
1. Adherence stout knife
2. Embrittlement similar bend radius, sharp blow, and steel
angle
3. Chromating spot test
4. Bending minimum finished bend diameter table
Sampling

The term coating thickness refers to the thickness of zinc

applied to steel, while coating weight refers to the amount
of zinc applied to steel for a given surface area. Two different
methods are used in order to measure the coating thickness
of hot-dip galvanized steel.
The first method to measure coating thickness involves
using magnetic thickness gauges. There are three different
types of magnetic thickness gauges and all can be used
quite easily in the galvanizing plant or in the field. The first
type of magnetic thickness gauge is very small and utilizes a
spring-loaded magnet encased in a pencil-like container, as
seen in Figure 14.
The tip of the gauge is placed on the surface of the steel and
is slowly pulled off in a continuous motion. When the tip of
the gauge is pulled away from the surface of the steel, the
magnet, near the tip, is attracted to the steel. A graduated
scale indicates the coating thickness at the instant
immediately prior to pulling the magnet off the surface of
the steel. The accuracy of this gauge requires it to be used
in the true vertical plane because, due to gravity, there is
more error associated with measurements taken in the

A banana gauge, as seen in Figure 15 is the second type

of thickness gauge. With this gauge, coating thickness
measurements are taken by placing the rubber magnet
housing on the surface of the product with the gauge
held parallel to the surface.
A scale ring is rotated clockwise to bring the tip of the
instrument in contact with the coated surface and
rotated counter-clockwise until a break in contact can be
heard and felt.
The position of the scale ring when the magnetic tip
breaks from the coated surface displays the coating
The electronic
or digital
thickness
gauge,
as seen of
in
thickness.
This type
of gauge
has the
advantage
Figure
16measure
is the most
accurate
andinarguably,
the
being
able to
coating
thickness
any position,
easiest
thicknessorgauge
to operate.
The electronic
without
recalibration
interference
from gravity.
thickness gauge is operated by simply placing the
magnetic probe onto the coated surface and then a
digital readout displays the coating thickness.
Electronic gauges have the advantage of not
requiring recalibration with probe orientation,
but do require calibration with shims of different
thicknesses in order to verify the accuracy of the
gauge at the time it is being used. These shims are
measured and the gauge is calibrated according to
the thickness of the shim, and then this process is

ASTM E 376
The specification ASTM E 376 contains information for measuring
coating thickness using magnet or electromagnetic current. It also
provides some tips for obtaining measurements with the greatest
accuracy, as well as describing how the physical properties, the
structure, and the coating can interfere with the measurement methods.
The requirements for ASTM E 376, as seen below, are intended to make
the coating thickness measurements using magnet or electromagnetic
current as accurate as possible.
ASTM E 376 Requirements
Measurements on large products should be made at least four inches
from the edge to avoid edge effects
Measurement readings should be as widely dispersed as possible
There are some general guidelines, as seen below, for reducing error
and ensuring the most accurate readings are being collected when using
magnetic thickness gauge instruments.
Guidelines for Reducing Error
Recalibrate frequently, using non-magnetic film standards or shims
above and below the expected thickness value
Readings should not be taken near an edge, a hole, or inside corner
Readings taken on curved surfaces should be avoided if possible
Test points should be on regular areas of the coating
Take at least five readings to obtain a good, true value which is

The second method used to measure the

coating
thickness
involves
optical
microscopy, as seen in Figure 17. This is
a destructive technique and is typically
only used for inspection of the coating of
single specimen samples that have failed
magnetic thickness readings or for
research studies. Since it is not a
common method, the accuracy is highly
dependent on the expertise of the
operator.

The first method to measure the coating weight

involves using a process called weigh-galvanizeweigh, and is only appropriate for single
specimen samples. The zinc coating weight from
this technique is underestimated because the
actual coating is made up of both iron and zinc
and this method will only measure the added
zinc weight in the coating. In addition, it can be
very difficult to measure and calculate the
surface area of a complex steel fabrication, and
this makes coating weight values even less
accurate. Weigh-strip-weigh is the second
method used to measure coating weight, and
again is only appropriate for single specimen
samples.
This method is destructive since it removes the
hot-dip
galvanized
coating
during
the
measurement. This process involves first
weighing the specimen, stripping it of all zinc
coating that was added, and then weighing it
again. The difference in the weights is then

The inspection of finish and appearance is done

with an unmagnified visual inspection. This
inspection is performed by fully observing all
parts and pieces of a hot-dip galvanized
product to ensure all necessary components and
specifications have been met. It is done in order
to observe surface conditions, both inside and
out, and check all contact points, as well as
welds, junctions, and bend areas.
Appearance
The appearance of the hot-dip galvanized
coating can vary from piece to piece, and even
section to section of the same piece. There are a
number of reasons for the non-uniform
appearance, but it is important to note
appearance has no bearing on the corrosion
protection of the galvanized piece. This section
will overview the resons for differences in
appearance.
Finish
This section will review a number of possible

The appearance of hot-dip galvanized steel immediately after

galvanizing can be bright and shiny, spangled, matte gray, or a
combination of these. There are a number of reasons for the difference
in appearance, as explored here, but regardless if the piece is shiny or
dull, the appearance has no effect on the corrosion performance. And in
time after exposure to the environment, all galvanized coatings will take
on a uniform matte gray appearance.
Steel Chemistry
The most common reason for galvanized steel to have different
appearances is the chemistry of the steel pieces. There are two
elements of steel chemistry which most strongly influence the final
appearance; silicon and phosphorous. Both silicon and phosphorous
promote coating growth, and this thicker coating is responsible for the
differing appearance.

The amount of silicon added during the steel making process to

deoxidize the steel can create differences in appearance of galvanized
products. The recommended silicon composition is either less than
0.04% or between 0.15% and 0.25%. Any steels not within these ranges
are considered reactive steels and are expected to form zinc coatings
that tend to be thicker. In addition to producing thicker coatings, highly
reactive steels tend to have a matte gray or mottled appearance instead
of the typical bright coating. This difference in appearance is a result of
the rapid zinc-iron intermetallic growth that consumes all of the bright,
pure zinc. This growth of the intermetallic layer is generally out of the
galvanizers control, because they usually do not have prior knowledge
of the steels composition. However, this increased coating thickness
can be beneficial in some respects because time to firrst maintenance is
directly proportional to coating thickness.
In Figure 18, the micrograph on the left shows a regular zinc-iron alloy,
while the micrograph on the right shows an irregular zinc-iron alloy.
These clearly show the microscopic level differences that can occur due
to the amount of silicon in the steel being hot-dip galvanized.

The Sandelin curve, as seen in Figure 19, compares the zinc coating
thickness to the mass percentage of silicon in the steel. The area on the
graph labeled I is called the Sandelin area and the coatings tend to be
thick and dull gray as a direct result of the percentage of silicon present in
the base steel. This area is known as the Sandelin range since Dr. Sandelin, a
metallurgist, performed the experimental work to show this behavior of
galvanized steel. The Sandelin area is roughly between 0.05% and 0.15%
silicon. The area
on the graph labeled II, which represents a steel content of greater than
0.25% silicon, shows the coating thickness increases with increased silicon
content and then starts to level off at around 0.4% silicon.

In addition to silicon, the presence of

phosphorus influences the reaction between
the liquid zinc and the steel, as seen in
Figure
20.
Phosphorus
is
generally
considered an impurity in steel except
where its beneficial effects on machinability
and resistance to atmospheric corrosion are
desired. Some steels such as ASTM A 242
Type 1 present problems because they may
contain both a high level of phosphorus and
a high level of silicon. The presence of
phosphorus generally produces smooth dull
coating areas and ridges of a thicker coating
where there is increased intermetallic
growth.Figure
The end-result
is a rough
surface
21 is an example
of products
with ridges
with appearance.
separate galvanized pieces that
have very different appearances due
to the difference in steel chemistry.
However, all of these products still
have an equal amount of corrosion
resistance
throughout
and
are
acceptable.

A visually dull or shiny coating on a product can be

caused by the different rate of cooling of a product.
In Figure 22, the outer edges were cooled rapidly,
which allowed free zinc or an eta layer to form on
top of the intermetallic layers. The zinc in the center
of the product that would have formed the eta layer
was consumed in the reaction with the iron after the
part was removed from the galvanizing kettle and
formed an intermetallic layer that gives the
dull gray look. Eventually as the product weathers,
the differences in appearance will disappear and it
will become a dull gray color throughout.
In addition to temperature and chemistry of the
steel, the processing of the steel can also create a
bright or dull appearance in galvanized products.
The top rail in Figure 23 has a winding pattern of
dull gray areas corresponding to processing during
the tube making. The stresses in the steel affect the
intermetallic formation and can create this striped
look. The corrosion protection is not affected and
these parts are acceptable.

As stated before, the hot-dip galvanized coating could have any number
of surface defects. This section will review the various defects and
discuss whether or not they are cause for rejection according to the
specification. The surface defects reviewed are:
AC
Bare Spots
Blasting Damage
Chain and Wire Marks
Clogged Holes
Clogged Threads
DE
Delamination
Distortion
Drainage Spikes
Dross Inclusions
Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath
FO
Fish Boning
Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Oxide Lines
PR

Bare Spots
Bare
spots,
defined
as
uncoated areas on the steel
surface, are the most common
surface defect and occur
because of inadequate surface
preparation, welding slag, sand
embedded in castings, excess
aluminum in the galvanizing
kettle, or lifting aids that
prevent the coating from
forming in a small area. Only
very
small areas, less than 1 inch in
the narrowest dimension with a
total of no more than 0.5%of
the accessible surface area,
may be renovated using ASTM
A 780.
This means narrow, bare areas
may be repaired; however, if
they are greater than one inch-

Blasting damage creates blistered or flaking

areas on the surface of the galvanized product.
Blasting damage follows abrasive blasting prior
to painting of the galvanized steel. It is caused
by incorrect blasting procedures creating
shattering and delaminating of the alloy layers
in the zinc coating. Blasting damage, as seen in
Figure 25, can be avoided when careful attention
is paid to preparation of the product for painting.
In addition, blast pressure should be
greatly reduced according to ASTM D 6386.
Since blasting damage is induced by a postgalvanizing
the galvanizer
is steel
not
Another
type ofprocess,
surface defect
occurs when
the damage.
isresponsible
lifted and for
transported
around the galvanizing
plant using a chain or wire. These lifting aids can
leave uncoated areas on the finished product that
will need to be repaired. The superficial marks,
like those seen in Figure 26, left on the galvanized
coating from the lifting attachments are not
grounds for rejection as long as marks can be
repaired. ASTM specifications do not allow any
bare spots on the finished galvanized part.

Clogged holes are holes partially or completely

clogged with zinc metal. A good example is the
screen shown in Figure 27. The zinc was trapped
because liquid zinc will not drain easily from
holes less than 3/10 (8mm) in diameter due to
its high surface tension. Clogged holes can be
minimized by making all holes as large as
possible. The trapped zinc can be removed by
using active fettling when the part is in the
galvanizing kettle, vibrating the cranes to jostle
the parts, or
blowing compressed air onto the galvanized
products. This condition is not a cause for
Clogged
threads
caused bythe
poor
drainage
of a
rejection,
unlessare
it prevents
part
from being
threaded
afterpurpose.
the product is withdrawn
used for section
its intended
from the galvanizing kettle. These clogged
threads, as seen in Figure 28, can be cleaned by
using post-galvanizing cleaning operations such
as a centrifuge or by heating them with a torch to
about 500 F (260 C) and then brushing them off
with a wire brush to remove the excess zinc.
Clogged threads must be cleaned before the part

Delamination or peeling creates a rough coating on

the steel where the zinc has peeled off. There are a
number of causes for zinc peeling. Many large
galvanized parts take a long time to cool in the air
and form zinc-iron layers after they have been
removed from the galvanizing kettle. This continued
coating formation leaves behind a void between the
top two layers of the galvanized coating. If there are
many voids formed, the top layer of zinc can
separate from the rest of the coating and peel off
the part. If the remaining coating still meets the
minimum
specification requirements, then the part is still
acceptable. If the coating does not meet the
Distortion,
as specification
seen in Figure
30, is defined
as the
minimum
requirements
then the
part
buckling
thin, flatand
steel
plate or other
flat material
must of
bea rejected
regalvanized.
If delamination,
suchasas
wire
mesh. 29,
Theoccurs
causeasofa this
seen
in Figure
resultisofdifferential
fabrication
thermal
andsuch
contraction
rates
for the
thin,
after expansion
galvanizing,
as blasting
before
painting,
flat then
platethe
and
mesh than
thicker for
steel
the
galvanizer
is not the
responsible
the of
defect.
surrounding frame. In order to avoid distortion, use a
thicker plate, ribs, or corrugations to stiffen flat
sections or make the entire assembly out of the same
thickness steel. Distortion is acceptable, unless

Drainage spikes or drips are spikes or

tear drops of zinc along the bottom
edges of the product. These result
when the surfaces of the product are
processed
horizontal
to
the
galvanizing kettle, preventing proper
drainage of the zinc from the surface
as the product is withdrawn from the
kettle. Drainage spikes, as seen in
Figure 31, are typically removed
during the inspection stage by a
buffing or grinding process.
Drainage spikes or drips are excess
zinc and will not affect corrosion
protection,
but
are
potentially
dangerous for anyone who handles
the parts. These defects must be
removed before the part can be
accepted.

Dross inclusions are a distinct zinc-iron intermetallic alloy that becomes

entrapped or entrained in the zinc coating. This is caused by picking up
zinc-iron particles from the bottom of the kettle. Dross, as seen in Figure
32, may be avoided by changing the lifting orientation or redesigning
the product to allow for proper drainage. If the dross particles are small
and completely covered by zinc metal, they will not affect the corrosion
protection and are acceptable. If the dross particles are large, then the
dross must be removed and the area repaired.

Another type of surface defect,

shown in Figure 33, is caused by an
excess amount of aluminum in the
galvanizing bath. This creates bare
spots and black marks on the
surface of the steel. The excess
aluminum can be avoided by
ensuring proper control of the
aluminum level in the galvanizing
bath by means of regular sampling
and analysis, and by adjusting the
levels in a regular and controlled
manner. For small areas of bare
spots, the part may be repaired as
detailed in the specification. If this
condition occurs over the entire
part, then it must be rejected and
regalvanized.

Fish boning is an irregular pattern over the entire

surface of the steel part. This is caused by
differences in the surface chemistry of a large
diameter steel piece and variations in the reaction
rate between the steel and zinc. These reaction
differences cause the thickness of the galvanized
coating to vary in sharply defined zones across the
surface. Fish boning, as seen in Figure 34, has no
effect on the corrosion protection provided by the
zinc
coating
and
is not
cause
for rejection
the
Flaking
results
when
heavy
coatings
develop of
in the
hot-dip
galvanized
part.
galvanizing
process,
usually 12 mils or greater.
This generates high stresses at the interface of the
steel and the galvanized coating and causes the
zinc to become flaky and separate from the
surface of the steel. Flaking can be avoided by
minimizing the immersion time in the galvanizing
kettle and cooling of the galvanized steel parts as
quickly as possible. Figure 35 shows a micrograph
of flaking. In addition, using a different steel
grade, if possible, may also help avoid flaking. If
the area of flaking is small, it can be repaired and
the part can be accepted; however, if the area of

Flux inclusion can be created by the failure of the

flux to release during the hot-dip galvanizing
process. If this occurs, the galvanized coating will
not form under this flux spot. If the area is small
enough, it must be cleaned and repaired; otherwise,
the part must be rejected. Flux spots can increase if
the flux is applied using the wet galvanizing method,
which is when the flux floats on the zinc bath
surface. Flux deposits on the interior of a hollow
part, such as a pipe or tube, as seen in Figure 36,
cannot
be repaired, thus the part must be rejected. Any flux
spots or deposits,picked up during withdrawal from
Oxide lines are light colored oxide film lines on the
the galvanizing kettle do not warrant rejection if the
galvanized steel surface. Oxide lines are caused when the
underlying coating is not harmed, and the flux is
product is not removed from the galvanizing kettle at a
properly removed.
constant rate. This may be due to the shape of
the product or the drainage conditions. Oxide lines, as
seen in Figure 37, will fade over time as the entire zinc
surface oxidizes. They will have no effect on the corrosion
performance; only the initial appearance will be affected.
This condition is not a cause for rejection of the hot-dip

Another type of surface defect is caused by products

that come in contact with each other or are stuck
together. This usually occurs when many small
products are hung on the same fixture, which
creates the hance products may become connected
or overlapped during the galvanizing process, as
seen in Figure 38. The galvanizer is responsible for
proper handling of all products in order to avoid this
defect. In addition, if the surface of a product
has a larger bare area than the specified repair
requirement allows, then that product must be
Rough
surface
condition
or
rejected and regalvanized.
appearance is a uniformly rough
coating with a textured appearance
over the entire product. The cause
for this rough surface condition is
hot-rolled steel with a high level of
silicon content. This can be avoided
by purchasing steel with a silicon
content
less than 0.03% of the steel by
weight. Rough surface condition, as
seen in Figure 39, can actually have

Runs are localized thick areas of zinc on the surface.

Runs occur when zinc freezes on the surface of the
product during removal from the zinc bath. This is
more likely to occur on thinner sections with large
surface areas that cool quickly. In order to avoid
runs, as seen in Figure 40, adjustments of the
dipping angles can be made, if possible, to alter the
drainage pattern to a more acceptable mode. If runs
are unavoidable and will interfere with the intended
application,
can beappears
buffed. as
Runs
not or
cause
Rustthey
bleeding
a are
brown
red
for rejection.
stain that leaks from unsealed joints after
the product has been hot-dip galvanized. It
is caused by pre-treatment chemicals that
penetrate an unsealed joint. During
galvanizing of the product, moisture boils
off the trapped treatment chemicals leaving
anhydrous
crystal residues in the joint. Over time, these crystal residues absorb
water from the atmosphere and attack the steel on both surfaces of the
joint, creating rust that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding, as seen in
Figure 41, can be avoided by seal welding the joint where possible or by
leaving a gap greater than 3/32 (2.4mm) wide in order to allow
solutions to escape and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip galvanizing. If
bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned up by washing the joint after the

Another type of surface defect occurs when sand

becomes embedded in the castings and creates
rough or bare spots on the surface of the
galvanized steel. Sand inclusions are not removed
by conventional acid pickling, so abrasive cleaning
should be done at the foundry before the products
are sent to the galvanizer. This type of defect also
leaves bare spots and must be cleaned and
repaired or the part must be rejected, stripped, and
regalvanized.
Sand embedded
in a casting
be
Striations
are characterized
by raised
parallel can
ridges
in Figure 42.coating, mostly in the longitudinal
inseen
the galvanized
direction. This can be caused when sections of the
steel surface are more highly reactive then the areas
around them. These sections are usually associated
with segregation of steel impurities, especially
phosphorous, created during the rolling process in
steel making. Striations, as seen in Figure 43, are
related to the type of steel galvanized and while the
appearance is affected,the performance
of the corrosion protection is not. Striations are
acceptable on most parts; however, if the striations
happen to occur on handrails, then the parts must

When
surface
contaminants
create
an
ungalvanized area where the contaminant was
originally applied, a surface defect may occur. This
is caused by paint, oil, wax, or lacquer not removed
during the pretreatment cleaning steps. Surface
contaminants, as seen in Figure 44, should be
mechanically removed prior to the galvanizing
process. If they result in bare areas, then the repair
requirements apply and small areas may be
repaired, but a large area is grounds for rejection
and
the entire
must be
regalvanized.
Another
type part
of surface
defect
is known as touch
marks, which are damaged or uncoated areas on
the surface of the product. Touch marks are
caused by galvanized products resting on each
other or by the material handling equipment used
during the galvanizing operation. Touch marks, as
seen in Figure 45, are not cause for rejection if
they meet the size criteria for repairable areas.
They must be repaired before the part is accepted.

Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded

connections on the steel. They are caused by
entrapped cleaning solutions that penetrate the
incomplete weld. In order to avoid weeping welds for
small overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the
edges of the overlapping area. For larger overlapping
areas, the area cannot be seal welded since the
volume expansion of air in the trapped area can
cause explosions in the galvanizing kettle. To avoid
weeping welds in large overlapping areas, the best
plan is to provide a 3/32 (2.4mm) or larger gap
between the two pieces
when welding them and let the zinc fill the gap
Welding
is a bare
between blowout
the pieces.
This spot
will around
actuallya weld
makeora
overlapping
surface
hole.
Theseisare
caused Weeping
by prestronger joint
when the
process
complete.
treatment
liquids
penetrating
the
and
welds, as seen
in Figure
46, are not
the sealed
responsibility
overlapped
areas and
thatare
boil
out
during
of the galvanizer
not
cause
for immersion
rejection. in
the liquid zinc. This causes localized surface
contamination and prevents the galvanized coating
from forming. In order to avoid welding blowouts, as
seen in Figure 47, check weld areas for complete
welds to insure there is no fluid penetration. In
addition, products can be preheated prior to
immersion into the galvanizing kettle in order to dry

Welding spatter appears as

lumps
in
the
galvanized
coating adjacent to weld areas.
It is created when welding
spatter is left on the surface of
the part before it is hot-dip
galvanized. In order to avoid
welding
spatter,
welding
residues should be removed
prior to hot-dip galvanizing.
Welding spatter, as seen in
Figure 48, appears to be
covered by the zinc coating,
but the coating does not
adhere well and can be easily
removed. This type of defect
can leave an uncoated area or
bare spot if the zinc coating is
damaged and must be cleaned
and properly repaired.

Wet storage stain is a white, powdery surface deposit on freshly

galvanized surfaces. It is caused by newly galvanized surfaces being
exposed to fresh water, such as rain, dew, or condensation that react
with the zinc metal on the surface to form zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide.
It is found most often on tightly stacked and bundled items, such as
galvanized sheets, plates, angles, bars, and pipes. Wet storage stain can
have the appearance of light, medium, or heavy white powder on the
galvanized steel product. Each of these appearances can be seen from
right to left in Figure 49. One method to avoid wet storage stains is to
passivate the product after galvanizing by using a chromate quench
solution. Another precaution is to avoid stacking products in poorly
ventilated, damp conditions. Light or medium wet storage stain will
weather over time in service and is acceptable. In most cases, wet
storage stain does not indicate serious degradation of the zinc coating,

Skimming deposits are usually caused when

there is no access to remove the skimmings
during the withdrawal of the steel from the
galvanizing kettle. The skimmings on the liquid
zinc surface are trapped on the zinc coating. In
order to remove zinc skimmings without
harming the soft zinc coating underneath,
lightly brush them off the surface of the
galvanized steel during the in-house inspection
stage with
a
nylonbristle
brush.
Zinc
skimmings, as seen in Figure 50, are not
grounds for rejection. The zinc coating
Zinc
splatterisisnot
defined
as during
splashes
and
flakes
underneath
harmed
their
removal
of
that the
loosely
adherespecifications.
to the galvanized
andzinc
it meets
necessary
coating surface. Zinc splatter is created when
moisture on the surface of the galvanizing
kettle causes liquid zinc to pop and splash
droplets onto the product. These splashes
create flakes of zinc loosely adherent to the
galvanized surface. Zinc splatter, as seen in
Figure 51, will not affect the corrosion
performance of the zinc coating and is not
cause for rejection. The splatter does not need

Testing of the zinc coating adherence to

the steel is achieved using a stout knife.
The steps used in this test are listed
below and a photo of the test being
performed can be seen in Figure 52. The
coating shall be deemed not adherent
if it flakes off and exposes the base
metal in advance of the knifepoint. The
test is not an attempt to pare or whittle
the zinc coating. If the coating is
adherent the knife should put a slight
mark in the zinc metal surface, but
should not cause any delamination of
the coating layers.
Adhesion Test with a Stout Knife
Push down point of stout knife
Coating must not flake off exposing the base metal
Do not perform at edges or corners of the product
No paring or whittling with knife is acceptable

The hot-dip galvanized coating on a steel bar must withstand bending

without flaking or peeling when the bending test is preformed in
accordance with the specifications in ASTM A 143. There are various
tests used to assess the ductility of steel when subjected to bending.
One test may include the determination of the minimum radius or
diameter required to make a satisfactory bend. Another test may include
the number of repeated bends that the material can withstand without
failure when it is bent through a given angle and over a definite radius.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel
reinforcing bars bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be
fabricated to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified
value in ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, steel reinforcing bars can be
bent to diameters tighter than the specified values if they are stress
relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour
per
(25mm) of to
diameter.
The inch
specification
determine the presence of chromate on zinc
surfaces is ASTM B 201. This test involves placing drops of a lead
acetate solution on the surface of the product, waiting 5 seconds, and
then blotting it gently. If this solution creates a dark deposit or black
stain, then there is unpassivated zinc present. A clear result indicates
the presence of a chromate passivation coating.

When there is suspicion of potential embrittlement of a product, it may

be necessary to test a small group of the products to measure the
ductility. These tests are usually destructive to the zinc coating and
possibly to the product as well. Products suspected of embrittlement
shall be tested according to the specification ASTM A 143. Depending on
the service conditions the product will be exposed to, one of three
embrittlement tests may need to be performed. These embrittlement
tests include the similar bend radius test, sharp blow test, and steel
angle test. The embrittlement test uses a known force to provide a
stress that should be lower than the yield stress of the part. If there is a
fracture or permanent damage created during the testing process, the
parts must be rejected.
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality
products because the inspection of the coating thickness for every piece
of material galvanized in a project would not be practical. ASTM A 123/A
123M states for a unit of products whose surface area is equal to or less
than 160 in (1032 cm), the entire surface of each test product
constitutes a specimen. In the case of a product containing more than
one material category or steel thickness range, that product will contain
more than one specimen. In addition, products with surface areas
greater than 160 in (1032 cm) are multi-specimen products. There are
four important terms used in the ASTM specifications and each is

Sampling Terms
Lot unit of production or shipment from which a sample is
taken for testing
Sample a collection of individual units of product from a
single lot
Specimen the surface of an individual test product or a
portion of a test product which is a member of a lot or a member
of a sample representing that lot
Test Product an individual unit of product that is a member
of the sample
For single specimen products, each randomly selected product is a
specimen. In thickness measurement tests, five measurements are
taken widely dispersed over the surface area of the specimen in order to
represent the total coating thickness. The mean value of the five coating
thicknesses for one specimen must have a minimum average coating
thickness grade of not less than one grade below the minimum average
coating thickness for the material category. In Figure 53, the separation
of a lot into a sample and individual specimen is shown.

A multi-specimen product is defined as having a surface area that may

be larger than 160 in (1032 cm), have multiple steel thicknesses, or
contain more than one coating category. In order to test coating
thickness of products whose surface area is greater than 160 in (1032
cm), they are subdivided into three continuous local sections with
equivalent surface areas, each of which constitutes a unique specimen.
In the case of any such local section containing more than one material
category or steel thickness range, that section will contain more than
one specimen. In Figure 54, the separation of a lot into a sample and
individual specimen is shown.

For products hot-dip galvanized to either ASTM A 123/A 123M or A 153/A

153M, Table 6 is used to determine the minimum number of specimens
for sampling from a given lot size.
No. of Pieces in Lot No. of Specimens
3 or less
All
4 to 500
3
501 to 1200
5
1201 to 3200
8
3201 to 10,000
13
10,001+
20
Table 6: Minimum Number of Specimens for ASTM A 123 and A
152
For rebar hot-dip galvanized according to ASTM A 767, the information
below is used to determine the minimum number of samples per lot,
measurements per sample, and the total number of measurements
required
for
each of the different coating thickness measurement
Magnetic
Thickness:
techniques.
3 samples per lot
5 or more measurements per sample
15 measurements, at the minimum, comprise the average
Microscopy Method:
5 samples per lot
4 measurements per sample
20 measurements, at minimum, comprise the average

Stripping and Weighing:

3 samples per lot
The minimum average coating thickness for a lot is the average of the
specimen values and must meet the minimum for the material category.
The minimum for an individual specimen is one grade below the
minimum for the material category. An individual measurement has no
minimum, but bare areas are not allowed on the part. The final
inspection of a part shall include thickness measurements and visual
inspection. All parts that do not meet the requirement must be resorted
and reinspected or rejected and then regalvanized.
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the requirements of the
specification, it must be repaired or rejected along with the lot it
represents. When repair of the product is allowed by the specification or
bare spots are present, the galvanizer is responsible for the repair unless
directed otherwise by the purchaser. The specifications allow for some
retesting of products that represent lots or retesting after the lot has
been sorted for non-conformance. The coating thickness of the repaired
area must match the coating thickness of the surrounding area.
However, if zinc-rich paint is used for repair, the coating thickness must
be 50% higher than the surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils
because mud cracking tends to result when the paint coating is too
thick. The maximum sizes for allowable areas that can be repaired

Maximum Size of Repairable Area

ASTM A 123/A 123M:
One inch or less in narrowest dimension
Total area can be no more than 0.5% of the accessible surface area
to be coated or 36 square inches per piece, whichever is less
ASTM A 153/A 153M:
The bare spots shall have an area totaling no more than 1% of the
total surface area to be coated, excluding threaded areas of the
piece
ASTM A 767/A 767M:
No area given
If the coating fails to meet the requirement for finish and
adherence, the bar may be stripped, regalvanized, and resubmitted
Damage done to the coating due to fabrication or handling shall be
repaired with a zinc-rich formulation
Repair
Methods
Sheared
ends shall be coated with a zinc-rich formulation
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements
of ASTM A 780, which defines the acceptable materials and the required
procedures. Repairs are normally completed by the galvanizer before the
products are delivered, but under certain circumstances, the purchaser
may perform the repairs on their own. The touch-up and repair materials
are formulated to deliver an excellent color that matches ither brightly
coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized
products. Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include

Soldering with zinc-based alloys is achieved by

applying zinc alloy in either a stick or powder form.
The area being repaired needs to be preheated to
approximately 600 F (315 C). The most commonly
used solders for repair, as seen in Figure 55, include
zinc-tin-lead, zinc-cadmium, and zinc-tin-copper
alloys.
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be
reconditioned shall be wire brushed, lightly ground,
or mildly blast cleaned. In
addition, if wire brushing or light blasting is
inadequate, all weld flux and spatter must be
removed by mechanical methods. The cleaned area
also needs be preheated to 600 F (315 C) and wire
brushed while heated. Pre-flux may also be
necessary to provide chemical cleaning of the bare
spot Finally, special care should be given to insure
that the surrounding galvanized coating is not
overheated and burned by the preheating.
Application
The soldering method is the most difficult of the

Final Repaired Product

The final coating thickness for this repair shall be agreed upon between
the galvanizer and the purchaser, and is generally in the 1 to 2 mil
range. The thickness shall be measured by any of the methods in ASTM
A 123/A 123M that are non-destructive. Zinc-based solder products
closely match the surrounding zinc and blend in well with the existing
coating appearance.
Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface
by either a brush or spray as seen in Figure 56, and
usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Zinc-rich
paints must contain either between 65% to 69%
metallic zinc by weight or greater than 92% metallic
zinc by weight in dry film. Paints containing zinc dust
are classified as organic or inorganic, depending on
the binder they contain. Inorganic binders are
particularly suitable for paints applied in touch-up
applications around and over undamaged hot-dip
galvanized areas.
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be repaired
shall be blast cleaned to SSPC-SP10/NACE No.2 near
white metal for immersion applications and SSPCSP11 near bare metal for less aggressive field

Application
This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as
possible after preparation is completed and prior to the development of
any visible oxides. The spraying or brushing should be in an application
of multiple passes and must follow the paint manufacturers specific
written instructions. In addition, proper curing of the repaired area must
occur before the product is put through the final inspection process. This
repair can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the job site and
is the easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is
required. Zinc-rich painting should be avoided if high humidity and/or
low temperature conditions exist because adhesion may be adversely
affected.
Final Repaired Product
The coating thickness for the paint must be 50% higher than the
surrounding coating thickness, but not greater than 4.0 mils, and
measurements should be taken with either a magnetic, electromagnetic
or eddy current gauge. Finally, the surface of the painted coating on the
repaired area should be free of lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.

Zinc spray, which is also referred to as metallizing, is

done by melting zinc powder or zinc wire in a flame or
electric arc and projecting the liquid zinc droplets by air
or gas onto the surface to be coated, as seen in Figure
57. The zinc used is nominally 99.5% pure or better and
the corrosion resistance of the wire or powder is
approximately equal.
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be
reconditioned shall be blast cleaned to SSPC-SP5/NACE
No.1 near white metal and must be free of oil, grease,
weld flux residue, weld spatter and corrosion products.
The blast cleaning must extend into the surrounding,
undamaged, galvanized coating.
Application
Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be
completed by skilled workers and should take place
within four hours after preparation or prior to
development of visible oxides. Spraying should also be
done in horizontal overlapping lines, which yield a
uniform thickness more consistent than the crosshatch
technique. The zinc coating can be sealed with a thin

Final Repaired Product

The renovated area shall have a zinc coating
thickness at least as thick as that specified in ASTM
A 123/A 123M for the thickness grade required for
the appropriate material category.
These thickness measurements should be taken
with either a magnetic or an electromagnetic gauge
for best results. The plain zinc sprays or the sprays
with aluminum additives both provide a good match
for newly galvanized, bright surfaces. Finally, the
surface of the sprayed zinc coating should be free of
any lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.

STEELS SUITABLE FOR GALVANIZING

Most steels can be satisfactorily hot-dip

galvanized. However, reactive elements in the
steel, in particular, silicon (Si) and phosphorus (P),
can affect hot-dip galvanizing.
An appropriate selection of composition can
therefore give more consistent quality of coating
with regard to appearance, thickness and
smoothness.
The prior history of the steel (e.g. whether hot
rolled or cold rolled) can also affect its reaction
with the zinc melt.
Where aesthetics are important, or where
particular coating thickness or surface smoothness

THE INFLUENCE OF SILICON AND

PHOSPHORUS ON STEEL REACTIVITY

During steel production, silicon or aluminium is added to

remove oxygen. These steels are known as killed steels.
Steel may also be produced without these additions and
are then called rimming steels.
Since the content of silicon (Si) affects the hot dip
galvanizing reaction, the silicon content should always be
taken into consideration for steels that will be galvanized.
Aluminium-killed steels suitable for galvanizing have a
low silicon content, below 0.03 weight percent.
Silicon-killed steels with a silicon content above 0.14 %
works well in galvanizing, but give a thicker coating than
aluminium- killed steels.
The phosphorus content of the steel also influences on
the reactivity, especially for cold rolled steels. Other
alloying elements in the steel have no major influence on

THE SANDELIN RANGE

Semi-killed steels with a silicon + phosphorus

content in the range 0.03-0.14 weight percent are
called Sandelin steels in galvanizing terminology.
These steels should either be avoided or special
types of galvanizing baths should be used.
In a conventional zinc bath the reaction between
this type of steel and zinc is very strong and the
coating becomes thick and irregular, often with
poor adherence.
It is the crystals in the outermost alloy layer, the
zeta-phase, that grow as small, thin grains.
Molten zinc diffuses rapidly between the grains
and the growth of the coating is very fast. If zinc
baths with suitable alloy additions are not

THE SANDELIN RANGE

Studies performed by FORCE Technology in Denmark have

shown that the bottom limit for the Sandelin range is lower
than earlier suggested.
It has also been shown that the phosphorus content has a large
influence on the reactivity of cold rolled steels.
For this reason now gives the following recommendations:
If the appearance of the galvanized surface is very important,
for example in architectural applications, the following
expression shall be used for cold rolled steel:
Si < 0.03 and Si + 2.5 x P < 0.04 weight percent
For hot rolled steel the silicon content is even more critical, but
the phosphorus content is of less importance, and the following
expression is recommended:
Si < 0.02 and Si + 2.5 x P < 0.09 weight percent
In most cases however, steel with silicon + phosphorus content
< 0.03 % is adequate and gives anacceptable surface finish in
both the cold rolled and hot rolled conditions.

RELATION BETWEEN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF

STEEL AND THE COATING THICKNESS AFTER
GALVANIZING

Since the type of steel, primarily the silicon content, has a large
influence on the coating thickness in hot-dip galvanizing it is very
important that the constructor or manufacturer are well aware of this
in order to get the right result in every individual case.
If a customer wants a coating that fulfils the coating thickness
requirements of EN ISO 1461, rimming or aluminium-killed steel
should be used.
Silicon-killed steel can also be used, but its silicon content should
preferably be in the range 0.15-0.22 % silicon. However, the coating
will be thicker than is required by the standard.
If the galvanized steel will operate in a more corrosive environment
than normal there is appendix to EN ISO 1461. This appendix gives
advice on how to achieve thicker coatings.
The suggested silicon content is > 0. 22%, and the coating thickness
increases with increasing silicon content, fig 1. Even if it is possible to
galvanize steels with silicon contents in the range of 0.35-0.40 weight
percent, it is important to be aware that these steels are very reactive
and give very thick zinc coatings. A thick coating gives good corrosion
protection, but these thick coatings are usually brittle and may flake
off during handling of the steel. For this reason such high silicon

IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT COLD ROLLED

STEELS

Cold rolled steels are usually annealed after rolling.

During this heat treatment silicon near the steel surface
may be oxidized. This is called internal oxidation means
that the free silicon content, that influence the reactivity
during galvanizing, is lower than the mean value of the
steel chemical analyses.
Annealing steel with a silicon content in the range 0,150,21 weight percent can easily decrease the free silicon
content so it falls within the Sandelin range.
The steel is then very reactive and get a thick, brittle
coating with poor adherence to the steel surface.
The depth of the oxidized zone depends on temperature,
time and atmosphere during the annealing. The oxidized
zone is usually removed during pickling, but in some
cases it is deeper, and it may be necessary to blast the
steel before galvanizing.

THE INFLUENCE OF SILICON AND PHOSPHROUS

CONTENT WHEN GALVANIZING COLD- AND HOT
ROLLED STEEL:

Content
Si+P < 0,03

0,03 < Si+P <

0,14

Cold rolled steel

Hot rolled steel

Acceptable surface finish in

most
cases.
Thickness
according to standard.
Shiny coating.
If the appearance of the
galvanized surface is very
important,
the
following
expression should be used :
Si < 0,03 and Si+2,5P <
0,04

Acceptable surface finish in

most
cases.
Thickness
according to standard.
Shiny coating.
If the appearance of the
galvanized surface is very
important, the following
expression should be used :
Si< 0,02 and Si+2,5P <
0,09

Not suitable

Not suitable

0,15
0,21

<

Si

< Thicker coatings than in Thicker coatings

standard. Internal oxidation standard.
may change reactivity.

0,22
0,28

<

Si

< Significant thicker

than in standard.
Grey appearance.

than

in

coatings Significant thicker coatings

than in standard.
Grey appearance.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIPPING TIME AND THICK

NESS OF ZINC COATING

Fig.1.
Relationship
between dipping time
and thickness of zinc
coating in steels with
different
silicon
contents.
The
curves
are
average
curves,
based
on
experiments
and
practical experience.
Significant variations
can occur between
steels with the same

HIGH STRENGTH STEELS

High strength steels are becoming more common in constructions

that are galvanized. Steels with yield strength over 460 MPa are
classified as high strength for sheets and wide flat bars. However,
there is no official definition of the border to the high strength
area. It is up to the steel producer how to describe the product.
Experience has shown that some high strength steels are less
reactive than expected during galvanizing, while others instead
are very reactive.
In the first case that means that the coating thickness
requirement according to EN ISO 1461 may be hard to fulfill.
In the second case the coating can be very thick and dull grey
and problems with poor adherence may occur.
Generally, when choosing steel for galvanizing, the same rules as
for low alloyed steels can be applied to high strength steel. That
means that the silicon and phosphorus contents have to be taken
into consideration.
Some high strength steels have a silicon content of 0,10 weight
percent, i.e. in the middle of the Sandelin range. These steels are

HIGH STRENGTH STEELS

Some high strength steels also undergo different types of heat

treatments during manufacture, which may cause internal
oxidation of silicon and influence on the reactivity of the steel.
There is a lot of research and development in progress to increase
the understanding of the high strength steels and their behavior
during galvanizing.
For high strength steels with a yield strength (ReH) > 650 MPa the
fatigue strength is reduced during galvanizing. The reduction may
in some cases be as high as 35%. For steels with a lower yield
strength than 650 MPa the reduction in fatigue strength is very
low. It should be noted that steels without or with only poor
corrosion protection may very quickly develop local corrosion
attack (for example pitting corrosion) which lowers the fatigue
strength dramatically. This means that the fatigue resistance of
the galvanized steel is usually superior in the long term. High
strength steels may under some circumstances behave in a
brittle manner during working and/or galvanizing. Because of this
there are special guidelines for galvanizing high strength steels.

STEELS WITH HIGHER SULPHUR LEVELS

Higher sulphur levels above approx.

0.18 % like those in certain freecutting steels, can accelerate the
reaction to such an extent that the
steel cannot be hot-dip galvanized.
The attack from the zinc would be so
vigorous that the steel would be ruined.

STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steels, for example AISI 304 or so called

acid-proof stainless steels, AISI 316, are
sometimes galvanized when stainless parts are
welded onto carbon steel.
The zinc coating on the stainless parts may be
thick with a dull surface finish, depending on the
content of silicon, chromium and nickel.
There can also be bare spots on the surface,
without any coating.
Galvanizing of stainless steels may cause zinc
brittleness, i.e. zinc penetrating the grain
boundaries, if there are stresses in the steel.
Such stresses may be created during welding or
cold working of the steel.

HARDENED OR COLD WORKED STEELS

Hardened or strongly cold worked

steels (HRc > 33) may absorb
hydrogen during pickling and show
hydrogen embrittlement.
To avoid this, hydrogen baking for 4
hours at 275 C can be performed after
pickling, but since these steels also are
sensitive to zinc embrittlement they
are not suitable for galvanizing.

COATING THICKNESS

The coating thickness on galvanized steel depends

mainly on:
Steel silicon content
Steel phosphorous content
Dipping time in zinc melt
Steel dimension and surface roughness
Heat treatments of steel during working
In table 1 coating thickness requirements from the
EN ISO 1461:1999 standard are shown. In table 2
examples of thicker coatings are given.

COATING THICKNESS

Table
1.
Coating
thickness according to
standard
EN
ISO
1461:1999. If nothing
else is specified in the
order, coating thick
nesses according to
the table above are
The surface roughness of the steel
largely affects the
given.
coating thickness. Studies have shown that sandblasting
leads to a large increase in coating thickness on most
steels (80-100%).
Scratching or local deformation of the steel surface during
cold forming also influences the surface roughness, and
may lead to significant variations in coating thickness.
In these cases dark grey areas on an otherwise shiny
surface can be seen.

COATING THICKNESS

Flame-cutting, laser-cutting and plasma-cutting

change the steel composition and structure in the
zone around the cut surface, so that the minimum
coating thickness may be more difficult to obtain.
According to the galvanizing standard EN ISO 1461
thickness measurements shall not be performed on
cut surfaces or on surfaces less than 10 mm from
edges or corners.
To obtain the standardized coating thickness on such
surfaces, the oxidized area has to be removed before
galvanizing. On cut areas, grinding or blasting until the
annealing colour is removed is suitable, since this also
breaks the cut edges, which improve the coating
adherence.
Usually normal or slightly heavier pickling (or blasting) is
enough to remove the heat affected surface zone from

COATING APPEARANCE

Hot dip galvanizing of steels with low silicon- or

phosphorus content gives light and shiny zinc coatings.
In outdoor environments the surface color changes to dull
and light grey after some time.
Steels with silicon content in the range 0.15 - 0.25 weight
percent normally gives bright coatings, except close to
the upper limit of the range.
Silicon contents around this value may give grey surfaces
or a grey network on an otherwise bright surface.
If a nickel alloyed zinc bath is used, the reaction between
zinc and iron are reduced, and the coating is usually
bright up to 0.25 weight percent silicon.
Steel with higher silicon contents (> 0.25 weight percent)
general gives dull, grey coatings, which gets darker with
increasing silicon content.

COATING APPEARANCE

The dark grey color is only an aesthetic effect, since the

corrosion protection is the same, or even better as long as
the coating thickness is the same.
Dark grey coatings are often thicker than bright coatings,
since they usually are coarse by higher reactivity between
iron and zinc, and therefore gives longer corrosion
protection.
The color of the coating is determined by the proportion of
iron-zinc crystals that are mixed with pure zinc on the
outer surface of the coating the more pure zinc, the
lighter the surface; the higher the iron-zinc content, the
darker the surface.
When a zinc coating with high iron content corrodes, the
iron is released and oxidized, which may give the surface
a reddish-brown discoloration.
The reddish-brown color will increase when a larger part of

COATING APPEARANCE

Thus, a reddish-brown discoloration of the surface does

not mean that the zinc coating is gone.
Zinc coatings with an outermost layer of pure metallic
zinc and a light appearance may also develop
reddishbrown discoloration when the pure zinc layer has
corroded away.
The time for the reddish-brown discoloration to form is
longer in this case, depending on the thickness of the
pure zinc layer.
On steels with a silicon + phosphorus content < 0,03 %
the pure zinc content is usually 30-50 % of total coating
thickness.
If there are uncertainties about the silicon content of the
steel and thus the appearance of the coating, test
galvanizing is to be recommended

ORDERING OF STEEL

To get a proper result after galvanizing it is not enough to use

only the steel classification (CEN-standard or commercial name)
when ordering and purchasing steel.
It is also necessary to specify limitations for the silicon, and in
some cases also the phosphorus, content.
Unfortunately it not always possible get exactly the desired
chemical composition of steel. When larger volumes of steel are
purchased this is often no problem, but when buying from stock
it may be harder to find steel with the desired composition.
Early contact with the steel manufacturer increases the
possibility to get the right steel specification.
It is also important to be aware of the quality of the steel
surface before galvanizing. Construction steels are often
delivered pickled and oiled, and after, for example, welding the
oil may be bonded to the steel surface and hard to remove
during degreasing prior to galvanizing. Since the oil must be
removed to avoid problems with black spots on the steel after
galvanizing, special cleaning may be necessary.

DESIGN MATERIAL FOR HDG