The ability of cells to respond to

the environment has evolved

over billions of years

Nervous systems show diverse

patterns of organization
Nerve nets.

 With cephalization come more complex

nervous systems.

 Functional composition of the PNS.

Fig.48.17

Parasympathetic and Sympathetic

Nervous System:
A subdivision of the PNS
Not under conscious control
Work antagonistically
Controlled by medulla oblongata and
hypothalamus
Peripheral nervous system that
supplies stimulation via motor nerves
to smooth and cardiac muscle and to
glands

neurotransmitter is norepinephrine, fight

or flight
E = exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

neurotransmitter is acetylcholine
D = digestion, deification, diuresis (urinating)

Fig.48.20

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cerebrum

corpus
callosum
thalamus

hypothalamus

Pineal gland

cerebellum

pituitary
pons
spinal cord

medulla
oblongata

Cerebrum

Involved with higher brain functions.

Processes sensory information.
Initiates motor functions.
Integrates information.

Regions of the cerebrum are

specialized for different functions
The
cerebrum is
divided into
frontal,
temporal,
occipital,
and parietal
lobes.

 Frontal lobe.
Contains the primary motor cortex.

Parietal lobe.
Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Fig.48.25
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 Integrative Function of the Association Areas.

Much of the cerebrum is given over to
association areas.
Areas where sensory information is integrated
and assessed and motor responses are
planned.

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 The brain exhibits plasticity of function.

For example, infants with intractable
epilepsy may have an entire cerebral
hemisphere removed.
The remaining hemisphere can provide the
function normally provided by both
hemispheres.

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 Lateralization of Brain Function.

The left hemisphere.
Specializes in language, math, logic operations, and
the processing of serial sequences of information, and
visual and auditory details.
Specializes in detailed activities required for motor
control.

The right hemisphere.

Specializes in pattern recognition, spatial relationships,
nonverbal ideation, emotional processing, and the
parallel processing of information.

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Fig. 49-17

Ma
x

Hearing
words

Seeing
words

Min
Speaking
words

Generating
words

 Language and Speech.

Brocas area.
Usually located in the left hemispheres frontal lobe
Responsible for speech production.

Wernickes area.
Usually located in the right hemispheres temporal lobe
Responsible for the comprehension of speech.

Other speech areas are involved

generating verbs to match nouns, grouping
together related words, etc.

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 Emotions.
In mammals, the limbic system is composed
of the hippocampus, olfactory cortex, inner
portions of the cortexs lobes, and parts of the
thalamus and hypothalamus.
Mediates basic emotions (fear, anger), involved in
emotional bonding, establishes emotional memory
For example,
the amygdala
is involved in
recognizing
the emotional
content of
facial expression.

 Memory and Learning.

Short-term memory stored in the frontal
lobes.
The establishment of long-term memory
involves the hippocampus.
The transfer of information from short-term to
long-term memory.
Is enhanced by repetition (remember that when you are
preparing for an exam).
Influenced by emotional states mediated by the
amygdala.
Influenced by association with previously stored
information.
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 Different types of long-term memories are

stored in different regions of the brain.
Memorization-type memory can be rapid.
Primarily involves changes in the strength of
existing nerve connections.

Learning of skills and procedures is slower.

Appears to involves cellular mechanisms
similar to those involved in brain growth and
development.

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 Human Consciousness.
Brain imaging can show neural activity
associated with:
Conscious perceptual choice
Unconscious processing
Memory retrieval
Working memory.

Consciousness appears to be a wholebrain phenomenon.

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Research on neuron development

and neural stem cells may lead to
new approaches for treating CNS
injuries and diseases
The mammalian PNS has the ability to repair
itself, the CNS does not.
Research on nerve cell development and
neural stem cells may be the future of
treatment for damage to the CNS.

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 Neural Stem Cells.

The adult human brain does produce new
nerve cells.
New nerve cells have been found in the
hippocampus.
Since mature human brain cells cannot
undergo cell division the new cells must have
arisen from stem cells.

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Thalamus
Relay center for sensory tracts
from the spinal cord to the
cerebrum.
Contains centers for sensation
of pain, temperature, and touch.
Involved with emotions and
alerting or arousal mechanisms.

 The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.

The reticular activating system (RAS) of
the reticular formation.
Regulates sleep
and arousal.
Acts as a
sensory filter.

Fig.48.21
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 Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns

of electrical activity in the brain that can be
recorded as an electroencephalogram
(EEG).
Most dreaming
occurs during
REM (rapid
eye movement)
sleep.

Fig.48.22bd
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Hypothalamus
Regulates:
autonomic control center- blood pressure,
rate and force of heart contraction, center
for emotional response and behavior
body temperature
water balance and thirst
sleep/wake cycles
appetite
sexual arousal
control of endocrine functioning:
Acts on the pituitary gland through the
release of neurosecretions.

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Midbrain
Cerebellar peduncles

thalamus

Tectum
Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi
Substantia nigra
Red nuclei
um
t
c
Te

Posterior

Red nucleus
Substantia nigra

Anterior

Midbrain

Contains ascending and descending

tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
Reflex center for eye muscles.
Also involved with processing visual
and auditory information (connects
head movements with visual and
auditory stimuli).

Pons
Connects the two
halves of the
cerebellum.
Regulates breathing.

Medulla Oblongata
Composed of nerve tracts
to and from the brain
(these tracts cross over
left to right and right to left)
May be regarded as an
extension of the spinal
cord
Almost all of the cranial
nerves arise from this
region

Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for
many subconscious
activities
Respiratory rate
Heart rate
Arteriole constriction
Swallowing
Hiccupping
Coughing
Sneezing

Cerebellum

Controls and coordinates

muscular activity.
Important in equilibrium,
posture and movement.

On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fat Voracious German Viewed A Hop

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Olfactory- smell
Optic- vision
Oculomotor- 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles
Trochlear- extrinsic eye muscles
Trigeminal- sensory fibers to the face and motor fibers to
the chewing muscles
6. Abducens- controls eye muscles that turn the eye laterally
7. Facial- facial expression
8. Vestibulocochlear- hearing and balance
9. Glosopharyngeal- tongue and pharynx
10.Vagus- parasympathetic control of heart, lungs &
abdominal organs
11.Accessory- accessory part of vagus nerve, neck & throat
muscles
12.Hypoglossal- moves muscles under tongue

Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory

Hypoglossal

Degenerative brain diseases

Schizophrenia
Parkinsons
Alzheimers
Huntingtons Chorea
MS
Epilepsy

Parkinsons disease
Substantia nigra in midbrain
Dopamine
- affects brain processes controlling:
movement
balance
walking
emotional response
ability to experience pleasure
and pain.

Parkinsons disease
Causes:
Genetics
Environmental chemicals (e.g., PCBs)
Thyroid disorders
Repeated head injury
Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease:
resting tremor on one side of the body
generalized slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
stiffness of limbs (rigidity)
gait or balance problems (postural dysfunction).

Parkinsons disease
Treatments:
L-dopa
Deprenyl
Deep brain stimulation w/electrodes
Fetal tissue

Parkinsons disease

F-Dopa deficiency

Alzheimers Disease
Results in dementia
5-15% over age 65
50% over age 85

Associated with :
Acetylcholine shortage
Amyloid plaques
Neurofibullary tangles

PET Scans