Infection, Immunity and

Forensics
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Explain the nature of the genetic code

A.O

Genetic code is the sequence of bases on the DNA

molecule, it is read in groups of three bases called

codons.
It can be describe as being a triplet code; three bases
code for an amino acid.
Degenerate: there is more than one codon for a
particular amino acid.
Non- overlapping: each triplet code is discrete and
only read once

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O

Explain the process of protein synthesis

It is made up of two main stages; transcription and translation.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus
DNA polymerase causes the DNA strands to separate leaving the

bases exposed.
The antisense strand acts as a template for the mRNA.
Free RNA nucleotides line up against their complementary base
pairs.
The RNA nucleotides are joined together using RNA polymerase,
in a condensation reaction forming phosphodiester bonds
between the nucleotides to form the polynucleotide mRNA.
The mRNA strand detaches form the antisense strand and the
DNA strands rejoin and recoil.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Explain the process of protein synthesis

A.O

Before the mRNA leaves the nucleus it undergoes

post transcriptional changes in which the introns

(non coding bases) are removed.
The remaining exons are then ordered.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Explain the process of protein synthesis

A.O

Following post transcriptional changes the mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the

cytoplasm where it undergoes translation.

In the cytoplasm the mRNA attached to ribosome which is made up of two sub
units and ribosomal RNA.
At the start of the mRNA molecule is a start codon which initiates protein synthesis.
The ribosome reads the codons and the tRNA molecule with the complementary
anticodon to codon being read lines up against it. Each tRNA molecule is attached
to a specific amino acid.
The ribosome goes along the mRNA reading the codons and fetching the
complementary tRNA molecules.
The anticodon of the tRNA lines up against the codon of the mRNA and hydrgoen
bonds are formed between the codon and anticodon.As the tRNA molecule line up,
peptide bonds form between the amino acid.
When the ribosome reads the stop codon which is at the end of the mRNA
molecule, protein synthesis stops and the polypeptide is released.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
Explain how one gene can give rise to a number of proteins
This is due to post transcriptional changes which was mentioned

above.
The remaining exons can be arranged into different orders.
The order of the exons determines the primary structure of the
protein (sequence of amino acids)
This then determines the secondary and tertiary three
dimensional structure of the protein.
Determines what bonds are formed in theses structures, whether;
ionic bond between side groups
Disulphide; bond between side groups containing sulphur
Hydrogen
The structure determines the type thus the function of the protein.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What is DNA profiling used for

A.O

DNA profiling is used for identification and

determining genetic relationships between

individuals.
The theory behind DNA profiling:
Everyone's DNA is unique except for identical twins
It analyses introns because there are a large number
of the them and they are highly variable (mutations
regularly occur here).

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
Why can evidence from DNA profiling be inconclusive
Due to small area of the DNA being analysed
There are many stages of the DNA profile so errors

can arise.
The DNA sample may be contaminated.
Identical twins would have identical profile due to
nearly identical DNA.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

How is DNA profiling used by scientist

A.O

Used to spot evolutionary relationships ( can spot

common ancestor) so is very useful in taxonomy.

Used to prevent inbreeding in captive breeding
programmes as inbreeding reduces genetic diversity

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

How can DNA be amplified

A.O

The sample of DNA can be amplified using PCR( polymerase chain reaction).
The vial containing; a sample of DNA taken from saliva, free DNA

nucleotides, DNA polymerase and DNA primers are placed into the PCR
machine.
The mixture is heater to about 90 degrees, this is done to break the hydrogen
bonds between the DNA strands.
The mixture is then cooled to 55 degrees to allow the DNA primers to anneal
(attach) to the DNA, to mark where to start replication.
Then heated to 75 degrees to allow the DNA polymerase to assemble
complementary DNA strands using the DNA nucleotides.
The cycle of heating and cooling is repeated approximately 30 times to get a
large enough sample.
DNA polymerase not suitable in machine as its optimum is about 35
therefore would like denature at high temperatures of machine.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

How is gel electrophoresis performed

A.O

After amplification, the parts of DNA to be analyses are cut with

restriction endonuclease.
The DNA is stained, and placed in well in agar jelly surrounded by
buffer solution. ( the dye usually used is ethium bromide)
An electric current is passed through the solution which moved the
DNA fragments with the shorter fragment moving further. (DNA
able to move with current due to slight negative charge of molecule).
The DNA is then viewed under UV light and seen as bands.
The higher the number of matching bands the more closely
genetically related the person is.
If position of bands are identical this can be used to identify suspect.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
What is are the key features of the structure of bacteria
Has flagellum which rotates to provide movement to the

bacteria.
Has capsule, also known as slime layer used to kill immune
cells.
It is a prokaryote and has a peptidoglycan cells wall
Contains infolding of cell membrane called memosome
which contains proteins for respiration.
Contains plasmid which are circular pieces of non essential
DNA can be passed on to host.
Contains circular Dna
Can have pili, which can be used in replication.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What are key features of virus

A.O

Contains capsid which contains genetic material.

Genetic material can be DNA or RNA (found in

retroviruses, in this case also have reverse

transcriptase enzyme which is used to convert the
RNA into DNA).
Contains viral envelope
In the case of HIV; contains GP120 molecules.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Role of barriers in protecting the body

A.O

There are various routes pathogens can take to infect the body and these routes

have barriers which prevent entry.

Skin is a physical barrier it contains keratin which is hard to penetrate.
Pathogens also need antigens to attach to which are not present on skin or blood.
Skin also secretes sebum which has a low pH so creates harsh conditions for
pathogens.
Skin has flora which are better adapted to living on skin therefore outcompete
pathogens
Skin also clots when broken to prevent entry to pathogens.
Another physical barrier is the epithelial lining.
It contains ciliated cells which sweep debris and mucus that traps the pathogens.
Can also secrete lyzozymes which is an enzyme that causes lysis of the cell
membrane of the pathogen thus killing it but only effective on bacteria.
Entry through contaminated food blocked by stomach acid, pH too low for
pathogens to survive.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What is HIV

A.O

Human immunodeficiency virus.

First stages asymptomatic,
But when immune system fails leads to development

of AIDS. (acquired immunodefiency syndrome.

Death is not by a virus but by a secondary infection
that wouldnt cause death to someone with a
functioning immune system.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
What is the series of events that lead to death by HIV
Gp120 molecules attach to cd4 receptors on the t helper cell.
Reverse transcriptase converts RNA into DNA, which enters the t

helper cells.
Enzyme intergrase allows viral DNA to be incorporated into the
host cell.
Create new virus which exit cell causing cell death and infect
further t helper cells.
T helper cells cause activation of t killer cells which recognise
infected t helper cell and kills the t helper
Reduces population of t helper leads to weakened immunity.
Eventually more susceptible to secondary disease.
Death by opportunistic disease like TB.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

How is HIV spread

A.O

The virus cannot survive out of the body for long.

Therefore it is spread by direct contact like sex or

other exchanges of bloodily fluid.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Describe the non specific response of the body to infectionInflammation

A.O

Platelets or mast cells in the blood release histamines

Histamines cause vasodilation and increased permeability of

cappliaries. This leads to increased blood flow to infected site,

along with the blood, white blood cells travel to the infected
site.
Inflammation can also lead to swelling, redness and pain
which can be combated with antihistamines.
Better to take antihistmines in tablet form not cream, as
cream allows application directly to infected site so faster
response, has a higher concentration of the antihistamines
and antihistamines in tablets may dissolve due to stomach
acid.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Describe the non specific response of the body to infectionlysozyme action

A.O

Lysozymes are enzymes present in secretions.

They have a complementary specific active site

shape, which is complementary to the cell wall on the

bacteria.
They kill the bacteria.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Describe the non specific response of the body to infectioninterferon

A.O

Interferon is a protein released by infected cells.

They act on virus and inhibit the action of virus thus

stopping their spread.

They also activate other mechanisms of the non
specific immune repsonse.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

Describe the non specific response of the body to infectionphagocytosis

A.O

A phagocyte is a type of white blood cell.

It recognises the antigen on the pathogen as foreign

and engulf it in a phagocytic vacuole.

Within the vacuole, the pathogen fuses with a
lysosome which contains lysozymes which destroy it.
Also use MHC to present the antigen of the
pathogen on its surface which can activate T killer
cells to kill the cell.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What is a T cell

A.O

A T cell is a type of white blood cell found in the

lymph.
It has antigen receptors which it uses to bind to
pathogens with a complementary antigen.
Recognises and identifies cells as self and nonself.
In the case that it binds to a non self antigen
(pathogen) it is activated undergoes mitosis to
differiate into t helper cells, t killer cells and t
memory cells

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
What are the different t cells and what do they do
T helper cell released cytokines which activates the b

effector cells
T killer cells kill infected cells
T memory remember the antigen allowing for rapid
secondary response in the case of reinfection. The t
memory cells are responsible for immunity.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What is a b cell

A.O

A B cell is a type of white blood cell, that contain an

antibody on the surface of the cell.

Cytokines released from the t helper cell activates in
cell and lead to the production of b effector cells
(otherwise known as plasma cells) which go on to
produce antibodies.
Cytokines also cause production of b memory cells
which also work to heighten secondary response.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What are antibodies

A.O

Antibodies are proteins produced by B effector cells.

They have 3D structure which is held together by

disulphide bridges. They have two antigen receptors

sites.
They have a constant region
They also have a variable region.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What do antibodies do

A.O

They cause agglutination, they do this by forming

antibody-antigen complexes which case the

pathogens to come together.
Agglutination is important as it places the pathogens
in one place making it easier to be engulfed. It also
stops the spread to pathogens.
Also neutralise toxins produced by pathogens by
forming toxin-antibody complex which is engulfed.
Block receptors on pathogen so they cannot bind to
host cells.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

What is immunity

A.O

When your immune system can make the antibodies

need to fight and kill pathogens when they infect the

body.
It can be passive or active.
Passive immunity is when the antibodies needed to
fight the infection is produced by another organism
and introduce into your body.
Active immunity is when your immune system
produces the antibodies needed to fight the
infection.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

A.O
How can you develop immunity ( passive)
Passive immunity can be developed naturally or

artificially.
Passive natural immunity- when the antibodies are
passed from mother to child through breastmilk.
Passive artificial immunity- when antibodies are
injected into the body, this is the case to treat
tetanus, the tetanus antibodies act on the tetanus
toxins.

AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO

How to develop immunity (active)

A.O

Active immunity can also be developed naturally or artificially.

Active natural immunity- when infected the bodys response is slow because

no memory cells are present, so the body has to make numerous t cells with
different antigen receptor until it creates an antigen receptor that is
complementary to the foreign antigen. This can take a while. The t helper
cells then binds to the pathogen and releases cytokines to activate b effectors
cells and the appropriate antibody. This is the primary response( the
response when infected by new pathogen). This response is slow and only
small quantities of antibodies are produced.
B memory and t memory cells are also produces so in the case of reinfection
the secondary response is trigger which is more rapid and leads to production
of a larger quantity of antibodies.
Active passive immunity- developed by vaccination in which you are injected
with harmless dose of pathogen in order t get your body to produce memory
cells that will allow for rapid response in the case of reinfesction.
AYOMIDE OLUBUMMO