Definition

Method of
fabrication
intended to
give physical
continuity
between
pieces to be
joined

Piece 1

Filler Piece 2
metal

Characteristics

rapid/local heating in a mold

appearance of molten metal (in a
mold-parent metal as a mold)
formation of single molten pool
rapid cooling
development of internal stress

Metallography of weld

3 distinct area

Plate 1

Weld
Weld ment (melted
metal
area)
Heat affected zone
(HAZ)
Parent
Parent
metal 1 Heat
metal 2
Parent metal
affecte
(unaffected by
d zone
heat)

Type of welding joints

BUTT

T-JOINT-BUTT
WELDED

BUTT-UNEQUAL
THICKNESS-FILLET
WELDED

CORNER JOINT-FILLET
WELDED

LAP JOINT-FILLET WELDED

T-JOINT-FILLET
WELDED

CORNER JOINT-BUTT
WELDED

B
A
D

C
A

B
C

Welding application in
vessel manufacturing

Type of Welding

Pressure
Fusion

Pressure welding
no melting of metal
high pressure applied to metals to obtain atomic bond
pressure must achieve plastic deformation for atomic
bond to happen and to break oxide layer
bond obtain by diffusion and crystal growth across the
surface
need low heat
applicable to dissimilar metal
less used

Fusion Welding

molten metal more easily form atomic bond

when melt lattice destroy and atom mix
new lattice form during cooling-may different from
original why??
BECAUSE

rate of heating and cooling

additional of other elements
properties different from original

heat required to melt metal e.g. steel 1300-1500C

T in pool 2500-3000C
Arc Temp about 6000C
Additional thing come unintentionally e.g. gas from air

Oxy Acetylene
Welding

Acetylene + oxygen
gives flame about
3100deg C
high temperature flame
is used to bring small
area of parent metal up
to melting point. A
separate filler wire is
then dipped into the
molten pool and a
portion melted off,
mixed with the base
metal to provide weld

Oxy
Acetylene
Welding

Oxy Acetylene Welding

Applicable to most metal including carbon

steel, stainless steel, cast iron, bronze
copper
Main application is for metal less than
5mm but thicker also can
Typical application: light fabrication such
as ventilation duct, small bore pipework,
motor vehicle repair
Becoming less popular now because of
new development of new and efficient

Oxy Acetylene Welding

Advantage

Manual
Low equipment
cost
Portable and
versatile

Disadvantage

Slow speed
(produce larger
HAZ)
Low rate of metal
deposition
Low productivity
High heat cause
distortion
Generally poorer
quality

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Welder establish arc between the piece

and the electrode
Arc melt pieces and electrode to form pool
protected by flux
Most versatile
Applicable to all thickness and most
materials
Can be carried out in all positon
Economy

Manual Metal
Arc (MMA)

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Electric arc formed between flux cored

electrode and metal
Arc temperature > 6000C
Arc causes metal deposition to
workpiece and arc shielded the zone
why?
Typical application: Fabrication of
pressure vessel, ship, structural
steelwork, joint in pipework and
pipeline, construction and repair of
machine plant

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Advantage:

Low cost
Economical for
small volume
production
Applicable in all
positions
Versatile and
trouble free

Disadvantages:

Slow-Have to
change electrode
and remove slag
Required manual
skill
Low deposition
capacity

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Use bare wire (typically 0.8-1.6mm)

consumable to provide arc
Electrode continuously fed from a coil through
specially design welding gun
Because of bare wire gas shielding is required
to eliminate reaction with atmosphere
Argon, helium and Co2 is common why??
INERT
Application: medium fabrication such as earth
moving equipment, plate , car bodies

Metal Inert
Gas (MIG)

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Advantage:

Minimum wastage of
consumable electrode
Less frequent
changing of electrode
No interpass cleaningno slag
Produce heavier bead
fast

Disadvantages:

Risk of porosity
More maintenance
requires
High risk lack of
fusion
Less suitable for
field application
High cost of
shielding gas

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Arc provided by nonconsumable

tungsten electrode
Electrode itself is not melting
Filler is fed separetely from a filler rod
A shielding gas, e.g. argon is fed
through torch
No flux

Tungsten
Inert Gas
(TIG)

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Expensive and generally use for carbon

steel for high metallurgical and
mechanical properties
Can be manual, semi manual or
mechanised
Application: high quality welds such as
aluminum, stainless steel, nimonic
allooy and copper in chemical plant,
sheet work in aircraft and structure.

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Advantages:

Applicable to
almost all
weldable
materials
Produce clean,
quality and
accurate weld

Disadvantages:

Lower deposition
rate-slow
High cost of
shielding gas
Required high skill
Limited to simple
and unobstructed
piece

Submerge Arc Weld

(SMAW)

Weld method that use continuously fed bare

wire electrode (1.6-6.4mm diameter) to
produce weld pool
weld pool produced protected from
atmosphere by separately supplied shielding
flux
can have many electrodes-faster
normally mechanised but can be made manual
arc is completely buried under flux-not
required eye protection

Submerge
Arc Weld
(SMAW)

Submerge Arc Weld

(SMAW)

Flux provides:

Additive
Remove impurities from weld
Provide blanket during cooling down

Remaining flux can be recovered

Applicable in ship building, structural
steel work, pipe fabrication and general
engineering components, bridges,
pressure vessel, etc

Submerge Arc Weld

(SMAW)

Advantages:

High productivity,
quality and metal
deposition rate
Mechanised
Deep penetration up
to 25mm perpass
Use more than one
electrode will speed
process
superior quality

Disadvantages:

Only applicable for

flat and horizontal
only
High heat input

Possible Defect in Welds

Oxyacetylene: Crack, LOP, LOF, P, I,

UC
MMA: Slag I, P,LOF, LOP, Crack,
spattering, UC, over deposition
MIG: LOP, LOF, P, Wormhole,
spattering
TIG: Tungsten I, crack, LOP, LOF
SMAW: LOP, P Crack

Cracks

a linear discontinuity due to

tearing of metal when in plastic
condition (hot crack) or fracture
when cold (cold crack)
weld metal crack caused by:

stress due to shrinkage during cooling

resistance of movement by the part
vibration during welding

Types of crack
Crater crack

Transverse
crack

Longitudinal
crack

Toe
crack
Fusion line
crack

Underbead
crack

Types of crack

Longitudinal crack

Direction parallel to weld direction

May be open to surface and extended halfway
known as check crack or
From root to surface-centreline crack, or
From root to somewhere in between-roo crack

Transverse crack

Direction perpendicular to welding direction

Due to stress developed in the direction of weld
May be extended to base metal and parent
metal

Types of crack

Crater crack

Toe & Root

Due to sudden stoppage of arc

Failure to fill crater at the end of the weld
cause outer edge to cool rapidly producing
stress and crack the interior
May be longitudinal, transverse or star shape
Due to notches + stress

Fusion line crack

Occur at fusion line

Types of crack
Lamellar tearing
in fillet weld TJoint
Shrinkage strain

Lamellar tearing in full

penetration T-Joint

TYPICAL HAZ CRACKING

Lamellar tearing in
corner Joint

Hydrogen Induced HAZ

Cold cracking

Occur in harden able ferrite steel

Occurs at <150C
Occur sometime after welding known as
delayed cold cracking
Three factors involved:

Presence of hydrogen (from welding consumable,

moisture)-when in molten it soluble and goes to
HAZ and parent metal. When cold insoluble
Presence of residual stress-no stress relieving
Presence of susceptible microstructure

Hydrogen Induced HAZ

Cold cracking

Susceptibility increase with

hardness-hardness increase with
carbon content
Avoided by:

Controlling composition to avoid high

hardness at HAZ
Use low hydrogen electrode

Lamellar tearing

Problem related to poor through thickness ductility

+ inclusion, e.g. manganese silicate, manganese
sulphide
May occur in HAZ and parent metal when fusion
boundary parallel to the plate surface (what type
of joint?)
Usually encountered in fabrication of thick ferrite
steel in T- or corner joints where high shrinkage
strain can occur.
Characteristic Step like shape parallel to rolled
Presence of hydrogen increases steel
susceptibility to tearing

Lack of penetration

LACK OF
PENETRATION
SINGLE-V WELD

LACK OF PENETRATION
DOUBLE-V WELD

LACK OF PENETRATION IN
SINGLE-J WELD

Lack of penetration

refer to condition where fusion has

occurred but the fusion zone does not
extend fully into the root of the joint.
Also known as incomplete
penetration, lack of root penetration,
lack of interpenetration for double-V.
Can occurs in all type of welds

Lack of penetration

causes:

Unsuitable groove design-root face too large

Root gap too small
Too large electrode
Too high travel speed
Too low current
Too low voltage

considered as a very dangerous defect

WHY??
Normally unacceptable required
removal and reweld

Lack of Fusion

Failure to raise the temperature of base

metal (or previously deposited bead to
melting point)
Consequently two adjacent layer of weld
metal or adjacent weld metal and parent
metal fail to fuse
3 types of LOF:

between bead,
between parent metal and
weld metal and lack of root fusion

Lack of Fusion

Lack of sidewall fusion

Lack of root
fusion

Lack of
Inter-run fusion

Lack of Fusion

Causes
same as lack of penetration
contaminated weld preparation
preventing the melting of material
underneath
the presence of slag, oxides or other
materials on surfaces that should fuse
too high welding current tend to
persuade welder to use higher speed
also considered as a dangerous defect

Porosity

refer to a group or individual gas pockets or void

cause by entrapment of gas during solidification how??
In steel oxygen reacts with carbon to form carbon
monoxide gas
Gas have not enough time to rise on the surface-metal
already solidify
mostly spherical but sometimes tubular-called WORMHOLE
or PIPING
large void referred as BLOWHOLES
hollow bead-elongated porosity in the root bead
herringbone porosity-wormhole side by side
porosity can be clustered, linear or isolated

Porosity

Piping/wormhole

Herringbone
porosity

Clustered
porosity

POROSITY

blowholes

Porosity
Causes:

excessive moisture in the flux

excessive moisture on the weld surface
contaminated weld preparation: scale, oxide
etc
inadequate gas shield-windy environment
moisture in the shielding gas
defective coating on coated electrode
incorrect weaving technique
damage electrode flux
excessive oxygen in oxyacetylene gas weld

Inclusion

Any foreign materials entrapped in the weld or

between the weld and parent metal
slag inclusion- entrapped nonmetallic deposit from
welding that employ slag covering, e.g. in arc welding
oxide inclusion-presence in weld by gas welding
process as a result of reaction between oxygen and
contaminant
Tungsten inclusion-presence on TIG due to tungsten
droplet
In multipass weld- failure to remove slag on the
previous pass

Inclusion

Inclusion between the

beads

Slag inclusion near the

surface and the root of
single pass weld

Inclusion at the
fusion face

Undercut

occurs when welder

melted and flushed out
some of the parent metal
in the line of fusion
may occur at the toe,
root or previously
deposited weld metal.
May be continuous or
intermittent
Has sharp edge along
the weld
dangerous

Toe
undercut

Root
undercut

undercut

Undercut

Causes:

excessive welding current

welding speed too high
incorrect electrode angle
excessive weaving
electrode too large

Others

Incompletely filled groove

A continuous or
intermittent channel in the
surface of the weld,
running along its length
due to insufficient weld
metal. May be along the
centre or along one or both
edge of the weld.
Due to insufficient weld
deposit or/and improper
welding technique

Others

SHRINKAGE GROOVE
a shallow groove caused by
contraction in the metal along
each side of the bead
ROOT CONCAVITY
a shallow groove that may occur
in the root of the weld due to
contraction
BURNTHROUGH
a localised collapse of the
molten pool due to excessive
petration, resulting in a hole in a
weld run
usually associated with the root
of the weld

Casting process

A process of
manufacturing a
finish or near-finish
products by pouring
molten metal into
mould
When metal solidified
it will be removed
from the mould
Many type of casting:
die casting,
permanent casting,
sand casting etc

mould

Molten
metal
solidifying

Pouring
of
molten
metal

CASTING PROCESS

PATTERN

PATTERN IN
SAND MOULD

CASTING OF BULLET

MOLD CAVITY WITH

GATING SYSTEM

COMPLETE
CASTING WITH
ATTACHED
GATING SYSTEM

Casting defects
Light section
solidifies faster than
heavy section

Pouring of
metal

Hot Tears
Formed

Area where hot tears

most likely to occur

Cold shut

shrinkage

Shrinkage Cavity

defect due to contraction of metal while

solidifying in mould and lack of molten metal to
fill the space created by shrinkage
identical to pipe
Normally due to improper casting design: If
progressive solidification cut off the supply of
the liquid metal to another part, the last part
solidified will form shrinkage.
Can be avoided by adding a feeder head
Sharp end thus stress raiser and dangerous.

Inclusions

Foreign material entrapped within the

casting
examples; sand, oxides, sulphides, slag etc.
harmful effect due to

low melting point-affect hot working and welding

brittleness-act as stress raiser encouraging the
formation of crack

can occur subsurface or surface or in the

bulk but mainly on surface

Inclusions

Causes:
Dirty ladle
Careless pouring and skimming
Turbulence due to improper gating
methods when casting alloy that is
subjected to surface oxide formation,
e.g. aluminum bronze
can be improved by better foundry
practice
considered not that critical unless
exceeding certain limit.

segregation

Molten metal is normally added with alloying

element for improvement of properties
Intention the alloying element must be
evenly distributed
Somehow these element is
separated/precipitated-thus defeating the
purpose of alloying
Result in local concentration of certain
alloying element
Can be localized or banded form

Hot Tears

Def: discontinuities that result from stress

developed close to the solidification temperature
normally occur at the change of section
Light section solidifies faster-so it shrinks faster
than the heavier section
Solidification creates stress when the metal is hot-it
pull the heavier section toward them
If stress large enough-exceeding the strength of hot
metal it torn away the metal at the heavier section
Can be prevented if the mold design (sand) is such
a way that if there is unequal shrinkage the mold
will break

Hot Tears
Light section solidifies faster
than heavy section

Area where hot tears most likely to occur

Hot Tears Formed

Cold shut

Definition: Molten metal in contact over

solidified metal-it kisses but do not fuse
MECHANISM:
when metal poured, it hit the mould hard
causes splash and stick onto the mold and
solidify quickly. Then the rising molten
metal reach it.
Can also be cause by lack of fusion
between 2 intercepting surface of molten
material

Cold shut

CAUSE: unsatisfactory
method of feeding the
molten metal
AVOIDANCE: by raising
pouring temperature or
pouring rate or both
EFFECT: dangerous for
high stress application.
For not critical
application is tolerable
to some extent

Cold cracks

Rupture of material due to stress

Normally well defined and straight
occur when the metal is completely solid
Normally begin at surfaces and readily
inspected by visual inspection
MECHANISM: metal hindered from
contracting resulting stress
CAUSE: may be from poor design of mould
and rough handling
DANGEROUS

Void

Cavity produced by:

entrapped air

entrapped gas evolved by metal

entrapped gas evolved by the mould
shrinkage of metal

Generally known as porosity, gas

holes, airlock, shrinkage cavity and
filamentary shrinkage

Porosity

Due to release of gas from cooling

metal or from sand mould or water
vapour or turbulent
can be in the form of microporosity or
pinhole

microporosity: occur around grain boundaries

or between dendritic arms
pinhole: refer to elongated and round
porosity with diameter less than 1.6mm:
occur thoughout or localized area; the long
axis is perpendicular to casting surface

Porosity

Effect: if abundance:
reduce endurance limit
Cause ugly surfaces
can be initial point for corrosion

round surface does not act as

stress concentrator

Gas Hole

Round gas hole having diameter >

1.6mm.
Cause by air, mould or core gas
and water vapour trapped
Can be round or elongated with
round end
can occur randomly, clustered or
aligned

Airlock

Entrapped air due

to improper pouring
very close to gas
hole except size and
shape
effect to material
similar to gas hole

Others

CORE SHIFT:

Defect due to shifting of core; core may be

shifted 1)during pouring 2)closing of mould
3)rough handling
core shift may cause on wall thicker than
another

MACHINE TEARS

tear of metal due to dull cutters

metal torn at right angle to cutting direction

Others

HEAT TREAT CRACK

what is heat treatment??
Due to rapid quenching and normally
occur at the no uniform cross section
GRINDING CRACK
grinding may cause local overheating
if coolant is not used, rapid cooling
may cause fine crack
perpendicular to grinding direction

Forging

the working of metal into a

useful shape by hammering or
pressing
Oldest method of metal
performing-horse shoe, weapon,
etc
Mostly at hot temperature
(metal soft) some at cold

Forging

Hot working improve mechanical

properties-how

Grain refinement
Closing of gas and cavities
General consolidation (compaction)
Breaking continuity of intergranular
impurities and inclusion

Application when;

steel shape cannot be achieved by rolling

directional properties is required

Forging
Defect-Burst
Rupture cause by forging
at improper temperatureTOO LOW (not hot enough
and simply did not want
to flow when forged and
ruptured
may be internal or
external
internal: the centre is not
heated up to forging
temperature-when forged
it ruptures

Internal
burst

Forging
between 2
dies
hot forging stock is laid between 2 dies

Die 1

Die 2

forging press or hammer squeeze the hot metal

sometime blow is repetitive
grains broken and recrystallize to finer, elongated and following the
form of the dies
what is the advantage of grain flow line??-it provides STRENGTH
sometime takes more then 1 steps, i.e rough dies followed by
precise dies
finishing die provides finer grain
grain flow line provide strength to metal

Forging Lap
folding of metal in a thin plate on the
surface of the forging
cause 1: mating surface of dies is not
match-as the metal squeeze down,
metal will be sheared and folded up
into lap
- as the forging stock squeeze down
between two dies some of the metal
will be forced out between the mating
surface
- as the metal further squeeze down
the metal will be sheared and folded
up into lap

Perfect
alignment

Misalignment
causing lap

Inservice Discontinuities

Corrosion: Destruction or deterioration of a

material because of reaction with its
environment
Fatigue: Discontinuities developed due to
repeated application of load
Stress corrosion cracking: Cracks developed
due to the presence of stress in corrosive
environment
Embrittlement: loss of ductility due to the
presence of element such as hydrogen in the
grain boundary

Examples of in-service
discontinuities

Fatigue crack in turbine casing of a power

plant

Examples of inservice
discontinuities
Intergranular
stress corrosion
cracking (IGSCC)
in inconel heat
exchanger tube

Examples of in-service
discontinuities
Stress corrosion
cracking due to
the presence of
chloride in
stainless steel
316 in a
chemical
processing
facilities

Effects of defect

Sharp edge defects act as a stress

riser, hence affect mechanical
properties
Defect may reduce the effective
thickness of material, thus reduce
strength
Severity depends on types, quantity,
location, orientation and size.