EARTH AND ITS INTERIOR

OVERVIEW
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

INTRODUCTION
CHRONOLOGY
COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE
SURFACE
TECTONIC PLATES
HYDROSPHERE & ATMOSPHERE
WEATHER & CLIMATE
MAGNETIC FIELD
ROTATION & ORBIT
BIOSPHERE
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
FUTURE

I. INTRODUCTION
The name "Earth" was derived from the Anglo-Saxon
word erda, which means ground or soil. It became eorthe in
Old English, then erthe in Middle English.
The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth
consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle. Earth is the
third planet from the Sun, and the largest of the terrestrial
planets in the Solar System in terms of diameter, mass and
density. It is also referred to as the World, Blue Planet, and
Terra.

Earths astronomical symbol

II. CHRONOLOGY

4.54 billion years ago, the earth was formed.

Within 10-20 million years, the assembly of the earth was
completed.
The moon soon formed afterwards as a result of a mars sized
object impacting the earth.
In hundreds of millions of years, the surface continually
reshaped as continents formed and broke up.
780 million years ago (Ma), super continents Rodinia broke
apart.
The continents later combined to form Pannotia about 600-540
Ma. Then finally Pangea which broke apart 180 Ma.

The Super Continents

Pannotia
Rodinia

III. COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE

Earth is a terrestrial planet, the largest of the four terrestrial
planets in terms of size, mass, density, surface, gravity, magnetic
field, and rotation.
Shape:
-Oblate spheroid with a bulge around the equator.
Composition:
-Mass is approximately 5.98x1024 kg.
-composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon
(15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%),
calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining
1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements.
Heat:
-80% of total heat comes from radioactive decay and 20%
from planetary accretion.
-Total heat loss is about 4.2x1013 watts.

Earth compared to other terrestrial planets

A terrestrial planet, telluric planet, rocky planet or inner planet is a planet that is primarily
composed of silicate rocks. Within the solar system, the terrestrial planets are the
closest planets to the Sun. The terms are derived from Latin words for Earth (Terra and
Tellus), and an alternative definition would be that these are planets which are, in some
notable fashion, "Earth-like".
Terrestrial planets are substantially different from gas giants, which might not have solid
surfaces and are composed mostly of some combination of hydrogen, helium, and water
existing in various physical states.

Present day heat-producing isotopes

Isotope

Heat release
[W/kg
isotope]

Half-life
[years]

Mean mantle
concentration
[kg isotope/kg
mantle]

Heat release
[W/kg
mantle]

238

9.46 10-5

4.47 109

30.8 10-9

2.91 10-12

235

5.69 10-4

7.04 108

0.22 10-9

1.25 10-13

232

Th

2.64 10-5

1.40 1010

124 10-9

3.27 10-12

2.92 10-5

1.25 109

36.9 10-9

1.08 10-12

40

IV. SURFACE
70.8% is water and 29.2% is composed of land masses.
Pedosphere outermost layer comprised of soil. Exists at the
interface of lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Land Usage by Humans:
Land Use:

Percentage:

Arable land:

13.13%

Permanent crops:

4.71%

Permanent pastures:

26%

Forests and
woodland:

32%

Urban areas:

1.5%

Other:

30%

V. TECTONIC PLATES
3 Types of Plate Boundaries:

Convergent Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

Transform Boundaries

Plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part
of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the
plates, and their motion is strongly coupled with patterns
convection inside the Earth's mantle.
As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is
subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent
boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material
at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges.
The combination of the tectonic processes recycles oceanic crust back
into the mantle.

Tectonic Plates

Plate tectonics (from the Greek ; tektn, meaning "builder" or "mason") describes
the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. The theory encompasses the older
concepts of continental drift, developed during the first decades of the 20th century by
Alfred Wegerner, and seafloor spreading, understood during the 1960s.

The oceanic and continental crust

VI. HYDROSPHERE & ATMOSPHERE

Hydrosphere
- consists chiefly of oceans.
- deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the
Mariana Trench in the Pacific with a depth of 10, 911.4 m.
- mass of oceans is approximately 1.35x1018 metric tons and
volume is 1.386x1019 km3.
- 97.5% of the water is saline and 2.25% is freshwater 68.7%
in the form of ice.

 Atmosphere
- atmospheric pressure on the surface is 101.32 kPa with a height of

8.5 km.
- It is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water

vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules.

- important part is the ozone layer.
- atmosphere leaks steadily into space due to thermal energy.

Earths atmosphere layers

Exosphere
From 5001,000 km (310620 mi; 1,600,0003,300,000 ft) up to 10,000 km
(6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft), contain free-moving particles that may migrate into and
out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
Exobase
Also known as the 'critical level', it is the lower boundary of the exosphere.
Ionosphere
The part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation stretches from 50 to
1,000 km (31 to 620 mi; 160,000 to 3,300,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the
exosphere and the thermosphere. It plays an important part in atmospheric
electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. Because of its charged
particles, it has practical importance because it influences radio propagation on the
Earth. It is responsible for auroras.
Thermopause
The boundary above the thermosphere, it varies in height from 5001,000 km (310
620 mi; 1,600,0003,300,000 ft).

Thermosphere
From 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000280,000 ft) to over 640 km (400 mi;
2,100,000 ft), temperature increasing with height. The temperature of this layer can
rise to 1,500 C (2,730 F). The International Space Station orbits in this layer,
between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi).
Mesopause
The temperature minimum at the boundary between the thermosphere and the
mesosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth, with a temperature of 100 C
(148.0 F; 173.1 K).
Mesosphere
From the Greek word "" meaning middle. The mesosphere extends from
about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the range of 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000
280,000 ft). Temperature decreases with height, reaching 100 C (148.0 F;
173.1 K) in the upper mesosphere. This is also where most meteors burn up when
entering the atmosphere.
Stratopause
The boundary between the mesosphere and the stratosphere, typically 50 to 55 km
(31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is 1/1000th sea level.

Stratosphere
From the Latin word "stratus" meaning spreading out. The stratosphere extends
from the troposphere's 717 km (4.311 mi; 23,00056,000 ft) range to about 51 km
(32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height. The stratosphere contains
the ozone layer, the part of the Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone. "Relatively high" means a few parts per millionmuch
higher than the concentrations in the lower atmosphere but still small compared to
the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of
the stratosphere from approximately 1535 km (9.322 mi; 49,000110,000 ft)
above Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
Ozone Layer
Though part of the Stratosphere, the ozone layer is considered as a layer of the
Earth's atmosphere in itself because its physical and chemical composition is far
different from the Stratosphere. Ozone (O3) in the Earth's stratosphere is created by
ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2),
splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then
combines with unbroken O2 to create O3. O3 is unstable (although, in the
stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule
of O2 and an atom of atomic oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen
cycle. This occurs in the ozone layer, the region from about 10 to 50 km (33,000 to
160,000 ft) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is
contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20
and 40 km (66,000 and 130,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per

Tropopause
The boundary between the stratosphere and troposphere.
Troposphere
From the Greek word "" meaning to turn or change. The troposphere is the
lowest layer of the atmosphere; it begins at the surface and extends to between
7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some
variation due to weather factors. The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing
because of solar heating at the area. This heating makes air masses less dense so
they rise. When an air mass rises, the pressure upon it decreases so it expands,
doing work against the opposing pressure of the surrounding air. The troposphere
contains roughly 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Fifty percent of the total
mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the
troposphere.

VII. WEATHER & CLIMATE

The sun heats the troposphere & the surface causing air
expansion.
Ocean currents are important factors in determining climate.
Water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land.
The Earth can be sub-divided into specific latitudinal belts of
approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator
to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or
equatorial),
subtropical, temperate and polar climates.
Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and
precipitation, with the climate regions characterized by fairly
uniform air masses.

Map of Ocean Currents

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water

generated by the forces acting upon the water, such as the Earth's rotation,
wind, temperature, salinity differences and tides caused by the gravitational pull
of the Moon and the Sun. Depth contours, shoreline configurations and
interaction with other currents influence a current's direction and strength.

Earths climate zones

VIII. MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole.

Field is generated within the molten outer core region where heat
creates convection motions.
Convection movements are chaotic and periodically change
alignment
resulting in field reversals.
Field forms the magnetosphere which deflects particles in the solar
wind.
Collision between magnetic field and the solar wind forms the Van
Allen radiation belts.
Aurora is formed after plasma enters the earths atmosphere at
magnetic poles.

Field Reversal

Earths Magnetosphere blocking the solar wind

The magnetosphere shields the surface of the Earth from the charged
particles of the solar wind and is generated by electric currents located in many
different parts of the Earth. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the
force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side. (Image not to
scale.)

Van Allen Radiation Belts

Aurora

Auroras, sometimes called the northern and southern (polar) lights

or auroras are natural light displays in the sky, usually observed at
night, particularly in the polar regions. They typically occur in the
ionosphere.

IX. ROTATION AND ORBIT

Rotation
- earths rotation period relative to the sun (solar day) is 86,400
seconds of mean solar time.
- rotation relative to fixed stars (stellar day) is 86,14.098903691
seconds of mean solar time.
- rotation relative to moving mean vernal equinox (sidereal day) is
86,164.09053083288 seconds of mean solar time.
Orbit
- earth orbits the sun at an average distance of 150 million km
every 365.256 mean solar days. Orbital speed averages 30 km/s.
- moon revolves around earth every 27.32 days relative to
background stars.
- earths axis is tilted some 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular to
the earth-sun plane.
- earth-moon plane is tilted about 5 degrees against earth-sun
plane.

Earths Rotation

Earths axial tilt and obliquity

X. BIOSPHERE

The planet's life forms are sometimes said to form a

"biosphere". This biosphere is generally believed to have begun
evolving about 3.5 billion years ago. Earth is the only place in the
universe where life is known to exist. Some scientists believe that Earthlike biospheres might be rare.
The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also
be called the zone of life on Earth. From the broadest biophysiological
point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating
all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with
the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

XI. INTERNAL STRUCTURE

 Structure
- mechanically divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere,
mesosphere, outer core, and the inner core.
- chemically divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle,
outer core, and the inner core.
Core
- average density of earth is 5,515 kg/m3.
- divided into a solid inner core, radius of 1220 km, and liquid outer
core, radius of 3,400 km.
- temperature in the inner core is around 7000 degrees Celsius
and around 4000-6000 degrees Celsius in the outer core.
- believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel
and one or more lighter elements.
- the liquid outer core is believed to be composed of iron mixed
with nickel and traces of lighter elements.

 Mantle
- extends to a depth of 2,890 km.
- pressure at the bottom is about 140 Gpa and temperature is
around 870 degrees Celsius.
- composed of silicate rock rich in iron and magnesium.
- high temperature within the mantle causes silicate material to
be sufficiently ductile.
- viscosity ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa-s depending on
depth.
Crust
- the outermost layer, ranging from 5-70 km in depth.
- thin parts are the oceanic crust composed of dense iron
magnesium silicate rocks, and underlie the ocean basins.
- thicker crust is continental crust , less dense and composed of
sodium potassium aluminum silicate rocks.
- most of rocks making the earths crust formed less than 100
Ma.

Earths Interior Cut-out

Internal structure of the earth

XII. FUTURE
Future of earth is closely tied to the sun. Luminosity of the sun will grow
by 10% over the next Gyr and by 40% over the next 3.5 Gyr.
Rise in radiation reaching earth may result in loss of oceans.
Increasing surface temperature will accelerate CO 2 cycle making it lethal
in 900 million years.
Animal life will become extinct within several million more years.
Mean global temperature will reach 70 degrees C after another billion
years and all surface water will disappear.
Sun will become a red giant in about 5 Gyr. Earth may escape
envelopment by the sun or it may cause the earths orbit to decay
and enter the suns atmosphere eventually leading to earths
destruction.

Life Cycle of the Sun

The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence evolution, during which
nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4
million tons of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing
neutrinos and solar radiation; at this rate, the Sun will have so far converted around 100
Earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10
billion years as a main sequence star.
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in
about 5 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase, its outer layers expanding as the
hydrogen fuel in the core is consumed and the core contracts and heats up. Helium
fusion will begin when the core temperature reaches around 100 million Kelvin and will
produce carbon, entering the asymptotic giant branch phase.

The sun as a Red Giant

A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass (roughly

0.510 solar masses) that is in a late phase of stellar evolution. The outer
atmosphere is inflated and tenuous, making the radius immense and the
surface temperature low, somewhere from 5,000 K and lower.

The solar systems clockwork motion is by no means guaranteed, for new

computer simulations suggests a slight chance that a disruption of planetary
orbits could lead to a collision of Earth with Mercury, Mars or Venus in future.

END