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Setting Objectives and

Planning Instruction

Characteristics of Effective Teachers

Clarity and Organization:

Warmth and Enthusiasm:

The most promising future teachers are those who can provide
clear presentations and explanations. Students tend to learn more
from such teachers.
Some studies have found that ratings of teachers enthusiasm for
their subject correlated with student achievement. Warmth,
friendliness, and understanding tend to be traits associated with
students liking teachers.

Teachers Knowledge:

Darling-Hammond found teacher certification correlated highly with


student success. Other research is less clear, with the exception
of mathematics. But teachers certainly need to know enough to
make clear presentations.

Teaching as Journey

Teachers journey students to places of knowledge.


Step one:

State where you are going, i.e., destination

Step two:

State how you intend to get there a map of the steps along the way

Specific factual knowledge/conceptual understanding


How precise should this statement be?

What form should this statement/map take?

Step three:

Determine/Assess whether you and your passengers arrived at the


destination

Summative versus formative assessment


What should be the nature of the assessment?

Why Set Instructional Objectives

They make explicit the desired/intended Instructional


outcomes

Objectives may be both short and long term

Reduces uncertainty and digression in teaching


Helps focus the teaching process toward achieving the stated
outcomes
Content standards for a given grade, by subject
Units/Themes spanning several lessons or weeks
Daily lessons

Objectives can be tailored to reflect both conceptual and


contextual demands

Tailoring Instructional Objectives to


Differing Levels/Types of Learning

If the learning content is factual, linear, and


manifest in easily observable changes in
behavior, use Magers formulation
1.
2.
3.

State what the student will do or say by the end


of instruction, i.e., behavioral objective.
State conditions under which the behavior will
be given.
State minimum criterion or standard for
satisfactory performance

If the learning content is conceptual, nonlinear, and


manifest in subtle, not easily testable changes in
understanding, use Gronlands formulation

1.
2.

State objective first in general terms, e.g., understandings


or appreciations.
Clarify by listing a few specific behavioral examples
students might provide to evidence their attainment of the
objective.
Why the need for greater flexibility?

ClassTask/Activity
Divide

up into four groups


Each group: Consider both Gronlands and
Magers formulation of objectives.

State three strengths and weaknesses of each


model
Construct two instructional objectives using each
model

Influential Factors in Selecting


Instructional Approaches/Models
A. Initial Student Characteristics/Entering
Behavior

Students level of knowledge and skills specifically


related to the instructional objective. It includes:
Pre-requisite

knowledge and skill


Knowledge and Preconceptions of information to-betaught.

How to obtain this awareness?


Response options for varying readiness?

B. Academic Content and Cognitive Demands

Declarative v. procedural
Conceptual v. rote/factual

C. Structure of the Knowledge-to-be-Learned

Blooms Taxonomy in the Cognitive Domain


Gagnes 8 Conditions of Learning

Blooms Taxonomy
in the Cognitive Domain

Cognitive tasks hierarchically arranged from simple


to complex.
Two broad categories: Knowledge and
Comprehension
1. Knowledge: involves recall of specifics and
generalizations, of methods and processes, of sequences,
classifications, or methods.
2. Comprehension: lowest level of comprehension. Student
has limited knowledge of what is being communicated
and, therefore, can define concept but not see all its
implications. Can translate and interpret

3. Application: ability to apply abstraction in particular and


concrete situation. May be ideas, principles,
4. Analysis: requires students to reveal their understandings
of the hierarchy or relationship among ideas in a body of
material
5. Synthesis: ability to rearrange or assemble parts into a
new whole. Ability to make generalizations and
discoveries.
6. Evaluation: judging the value of material or methods used
for particular purposes.

2001 Updates
to Blooms Taxonomy

Old Hierarchy

Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation

New Hierarchy

Remembering
Understanding
Applying
Analysis
Evaluation
Creating

Blooms Updated Theory

Learning outcomes are the product of combining


particular cognitive processes (task types) with
particular forms the content knowledge.
Four forms of content knowledge:

Factual knowledge
Conceptual knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
Metacognitive Knowledge

Forms a grid

Gagnes
8 Conditions of Learning
1. Signal Learning (Classical Conditioning): Organism
acquires a conditioned response to a given signal
(e.g., withdrawal of hand)
2. S R Learning (Operant Conditioning): Voluntary
action shaped by reinforcement (e.g., learning
meanings of words in a foreign language)
3. Chaining: Links together previously learned S-R bonds
to form routine procedures, e.g., commencing to drive
a car.
4. Verbal Learning: A type of chaining, but the links are
verbal units, e.g., alphabet

5. Discrimination Learning: Learning different


responses for stimuli which may be confused, e.g.,
femme and faime
6. Concept Learning: Learning to respond to stimuli as
a class, i.e., in terms of some abstract
characteristic (e.g., color, use)
7. Rule Learning: Learning rules we relate to 2 or
more concepts to facilitate its application to a
variety of similar situations
8. Problem Solving: May involve all previous forms of
knowledge.

Planning Instruction
Conducting a Task Analysis

State the instructional objective


Compare this with the entering characteristics of the learners
State the major concepts or procedures that students must
acquire to move from their entering behavior to the instructional
objectives.
State the intermediate sub-concepts or behaviors that students
need to learn in the process
Continue hierarchical analysis until all necessary skills needed
to accomplish task are stated
Determine instructional approach and strategies for teaching
each cognitive task.

Planning for
Constructivist Instruction

Setting Goals and Process Planning:

Shared and negotiated where teachers and students make


decisions together about content, activities.
Teacher has overarching goals, big ideas, that guide
planning
Use primary sources to formulate hypotheses and engage
in systematic study
Students form or pose problem to solve and engage in
systematic study.
Create learning environment that allows students to self- or
collaboratively-construct new knowledge
Common instructional tool = Thematic Unit

Planning for
Teacher-Centered Instruction

Setting Goals and Process Planning:

Teacher determines specific content objectives based on required


content standards and students entering behavior.
Teacher analyzes and constructs step-wise instructional map for
imparting instruction
Determines social and procedural strategies best to Impart
instruction
Implements instructional plans and provides knowledge and
comprehension questions to determine if students are correctly
acquiring knowledge
Provides opportunities to rehearse and consolidate knowledge.

Social Organization and


Instructional Strategy

Direct or Explicit Instruction

Lecturing and Explaining

Steps

Introduce the presentation to get students interest


Give the presentation in an organized & clear manner
Keep students engaged
End with a summary and reinforcement

When Appropriate

When need to communicate a large amount of information to


many students in a short amount of time
When introducing a topic or providing info not easily gotten
elsewhere.
When content is largely basic skills instruction

Recitation

and Questioning

Steps
Teacher

initially presents a short partial presentation of


the information
Teacher poses questions and the students answer them
Teacher repeats previous two steps following a specified
instructional plan, reinforcing students responses with
praise, correction, etc.
Teacher and students summarize learning

Kinds of Questions

Convergent Questions: Only one right answer.


Divergent questions: Have many possible answers.
Lower Order: Questions that require only basic
knowledge and comprehension for solution.
Higher Order: Questions that require application,
analyses, evaluation or creation for solution.

Strategies for Managing


Recitation and Questioning

Distribute chances to participate


Provide time to think
Stimulate and maintain interest

Provide feedback to students

Inject humor, mystery, and novelty


Challenge students to think
When correct, provide affirmation
When incorrect, make simple correction or provide prompts

Require overt answers

Strengths and Challenges

Strengths
Gives opportunity to check
on student comprehension
Pushes students to provide
more complete answers.
Slows down the pace
allowing for thinking and
problem solving
Allows students to present
material
Helps maintain attention

Challenges
Students are passive
Unequal student
participation
Difficult to monitor
comprehension.
Recall is emphasized over
critical thinking
Recitation may not be the
best instructional procedure
for certain student/learner
types

Rosenshines
6 Teaching Functions in
Teacher Centered Classes

Review and check previous days work (re-teach if


misunderstandings found)
Present new material: Make purpose clear, impart in small
steps and provide examples.
Provide guided practice: Look for misconceptions and re-teach
if necessary
Give feedback and correction based on students answers.
Provide independent practice: Independent seatwork,
cooperative groups or homework
Review and consolidate work on a wkly or monthly basis.

Group Discussion

Students form communicative groups

The number of groups can range from one to several.


The number of students in each group can range from two
to whole-class membership

Teacher poses question(s)


Students in their groups jointly work to solve problem
Teacher takes a more or less dominant role in
guiding students to problem solution.

Guidelines for Teachers


doing Group Discussion

Teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a questioner.


Invite participation of shy students; ensure others dont
monopolize.
Direct student comments and questions back to other students
Make sure you understand what a student has said. If you are
unsure, so may others
Probe for more information; ask students to provide supporting
evidence
Bring discussion back to the subject
Give time for thought before asking for responses.
When a student finishes speaking, look around for reaction.
The teacher must decide how much to intervene.
Teach students discussion skills

Cooperative/Collaborative
Learning

Five Basic Components (Johnson & Johnson, 1988)

Interdependence shared goals, division of tasks, shared


resources and information
Face to face interaction: discuss nature of the task
Individual accountability: personal responsibility to group to group.
Each member must master material so that can help others.
Collaborative skills: groups work cooperatively
Group processing: groups evaluate their own progress .

Number of different strategies:

Jigsaw
STAD and TGT

Strengths and Challenges

Strengths
Enhanced motivation
Enhanced social skills
Can give opportunities for
more students to relate their
understanding of content
Good for instruction with
conceptual information

Challenges
Time consuming
Individuals may monopolize
or steer group in wrong
direction.
Can intimidate shy students
Not all group members
equal contributors
Difficult to grade individuals

Independent Study

Involves students working with learning plans


designed to meet their particular needs, interests
and abilities.
There are a number of ways to modify lessons to fit
individual needs.

Pacing the learning at a different rate


Altering instructional objective
Altering activities or materials
Altering methods by which students demonstrate learning
Altering the reading materials

Independent Study

Behavioral Approach

Keller Plan: Personalized System of Instruction


Mastery: Objective based approach to instruction:
Assumption: All children can learn a task, but differ in the
amount of time learning requires. Some need more time

Constructivist

Self selected study. Give student an assignment that lasts


over several days/wks, or longer. Student is free from
attending classes. Student in 1-to-1 relationship with
teacher

Whatever

method is chosen to individualize


instruction, a teacher must know the subject
well in order to analyze the task to break it
down into small units and to arrange the units
into a meaningful sequence

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