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Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
Resolved shear
stress: R =Fs /A s
slip plane
n
p ctio
i
l
s re
R
di
R cos cos
R = FS /AS
normal, ns
FS
n
o
i
p
i
t
sl rec
di
Relation between
and R
AS
Fcos
F
n
o
i
p
i
t
sl rec
di
FS
A/cos
nS
AS
Note: By definition is the angle between the stress direction and Slip direction; is the
angle between the normal to slip plane and stress direction
R CRSS
R cos cos
R = 0
=90
R = /2
=45
=45
R = 0
=90
Generally:
Resolved (shear stress) is
maximum at = = 45
And
Cos
2
1
Adapted
from Fig.
7.10,
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of
C. Brady,
National
Bureau of
Standards
[now the
National
Institute of
Standards
and
Technology,
Gaithersburg
, MD].)
Hall-Petch Equation:
yield o k y d 1 / 2
Hall-Petch equation:
Larger substitutional
impurity
C
B
D
Impurity generates local stress at C
and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right.
Stress Concentration at
Dislocations
Strengthening by Alloying
Strengthening by alloying
Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
Tensile Stress side pinning dislocation
400
300
200
0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C)
1/ 2
~
C
Empirical relation:
y
180
120
60
0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)
Side View
Top View
S
Slipped part of slip plane
Result:
1
y ~
S
1.5m
force
die
A o blank
-Drawing
die
Ao
die
-Rolling
Ad
Ao
Ad
roll
force
Ad
roll
-Extrusion
Ao
tensile
force
force
container
ram
billet
container
Ao Ad
%CW
x 100
Ao
die holder
extrusion
die
Ad
0.9 m
large hardening
small hardening
Lo-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
D o =15.2mm
%CW
2
ro
2
rd
2
ro
D d =12.2mm
x 100 35.6%
700
800
500
600
300
100
0
Cu
20
40
% Cold Work
60
YS = 300 MPa
40
20
400 340MPa
200
60
ductility (%EL)
20
Cu
40
60
% Cold Work
TS = 340MPa
Cu
7%
00
20
40
60
% Cold Work
%EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
Results for
polycrystalline iron:
Stress (MPa)
-200C
600
-100C
400
25C
200
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Strain
0.4
1. disl. trapped
by obstacle
0.5
tensile strength
50
500
40
400
30
ductility
300
Re
co
ve
ry
Re
c
ductility (%EL)
20
rys
Gr
tal
l
i za
tio
ain
Gr
ow
th
3 Annealing
stages to
discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1
Results from
diffusion
extra half-plane
of atoms
atoms
diffuse
to regions
of tension
extra half-plane
of atoms
Dislocations
annihilate
and form
a perfect
atomic
plane.
Scenario 2
3. Climbed disl. can now
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
vacancy diffusion
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked;
cant move to the right
R
4. opposite dislocations
meet and annihilate
Obstacle dislocation
Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm
0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
33% cold
worked
brass
New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580C.
Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.
0.6 mm
0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 4
seconds
After 8
seconds
Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point
of highest rate of property change
1. TR 0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR
Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm
0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 8 s,
580C
After 15 min,
580C
Empirical Relation:
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain dia. At time t.
elapsed time
d d Kt
n
coefficient dependent on
material & Temp.
n
o
TR = recrystallization
temperature
TR
Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2
mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by
drawing. The circular cross section will be
maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380
MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are
desired. Further more, the final diameter must
be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.
Do = 0.40 in
Ao Af
%CW
Ao
Df = 0.30 in
Af
x 100 1
x 100
Ao
Df2 4
0.30
1
x 100 1
Do 4
0.40
x 100 43.8%
420
540
15
380
27
12
> 12 %CW
< 27 %CW
%CW
Df 2
Ds 2
D f 2 2
1
x 100
2
Ds 2
%CW
1
100
Intermediate diameter =
0.5
D f 22
Ds 2
Ds 2 2
%CW
100
Df 2
%CW
1
100
20
D f 1 Ds 2 0.30 1
100
0.5
0.5
0.335 in
2.
Anneal above
3.
Cold work
Ds2 = Df1
0.335
%CW1 1
x 100 30
0.4
0.3
%CW2 1
x 100 20
0.335
y 340 MPa
TS 400 MPa
%EL 24
Fig 7.19
Summary
Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.