Dr.

B Dayal

Dr. B Dayal

AERODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION
A car body with the aerodynamic shape passes with least

resistance through the air, as a consequence the fuel economy is

improved
For a vehicle without aerodynamic body, a lot of engine power is
required to drive through the air.
An automobile is a small object submerged amid vast
surrounding of air. The motion of the vehicle takes place through
a large mass of either stationary air, or air in motion.
The air exerts force on the vehicle.
It is the super structure (body) of the vehicle which is mainly
exposed to air.
An arbitrary shaped body will experience a large air resistance
which implies that there is more loss of engine power.
Consequently less power will be available to propel the
automobile thereby causing less load carrying capacity and slow
speed for the same fuel consumption.
Thus, there exists a need to profile aerodynamically suitable body.

AERODYNAMICS
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
THE force exerted by air on a moving automobile has two
components:

The one in the direction of motion called drag FD

The one in the direction perpendicular to the motion is called lift F L.

The body profile of an automobile should be such that the lift force FL is
zero or negligible, and then the total force on the body is drag force FD.
The viscosity and density of air are mainly responsible for drag on the
body.
Object velocity = vobj

Air density =
Air velocity =
vair

A V = vair - vobj
r
e
a
=

AERODYNAMICS
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
THE MASS FLOW RATE OF AIR = . A . V
ASSUMING dV AS CHANG IN VELOCITY
THEN RATE OF CHANGE IN MOMENTUM DUE TO ATTACK
ON THE OBJECTIVE M = . A . V . dV
But rate of change of momentum = force applied = dF
dF = . A . V . dV
dF = .A.V.dV
F = .A.V2 / 2
This force may be same or fraction of this due to shape of the body,
body profile and surface finish.
Thus it is multiplied by a coefficient called as drag coefficient Cd.
Therefore,
air resistance = drag force FD = .A.V2. Cd / 2
Similarly,
lift force = Fl = .A.V2. CL / 2
Where CL is the lift coefficient

DRAG AND LIFT FORCES ON

A BODY

AERODYNAMICS
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
THE ARBITRARY SHAPED BODY OF AN AUTOMOBILE, HELD

STATIONARY IN A STREAM OF AIR MOVING AT RELATIVE

VELOCITY V, EXPERIENCES SHEAR FORCE ALONG ITS
TANGENTIAL DIRECTION AND PRESSURE FORCE IN THE
NORMAL DIRECTION.
THE SHEAR FORCE ARE CALLED FRICTION DRAG FORCES, F DF
THE PRESSURE FORCES ARE KNOWN AS PRESSURE DRAG FROCES,
FDP
THE TOTAL DRAG ON THE BODY IS THEREFORE SUM OF FRICTION
AND PRESSURE DRAGS.
FD = FDF + FDP

THE MAGNITUDE OF FRICTION DRAG AND PRESSURE

DRAG DEPEND ON SHAPE OF THE BODY.

FOR EXAMPLE A FLAT PLATE PORTION EXPERIENCES
ONLY FRICTION DRAG (FDP = 0)

WHILE

THE FLAT PORTION PERPENDICULAR TO THE

DIRECTION OF FLOW, FEELS ONLY PRESSURE DRAG DUE TO
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ON THE UP STREAM AND DOWN STREAM
SIDE OF THE BODY. (FDF = 0)

DRAG

AERODYNAMICS

DRAG CAN BE CALCULATED FROM:

FD = . . A . V2 . CD
FL = . . A . V2 . CL
WHERE CD IS THE COEFFICIENT OF DRAG AND CL IS THE
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT.

DRAG COEFFICIENT

DRAG COEFFICIENT IS THE FRACTION OF THE FULL

FORCE, WHICH CAN BE EXERTED BY THE WIND ON
SOME AREA OF MOVING VEHICLE.
THE DRAG COEFFICIENT IS RELATED TO THE ANGLE OF
ATTACK BY;
CD = 2 SIN
WHERE = ANGLE OF ATTACK

DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE ON A
CAMBERED WING AT DIFFERENT
ANGLES OF ATTACK

DRAG FORCES ON A CAR

BODY

FLOW PATTERN AROUND A

STREAMLINED CAR BODY

WAKE
QUITE OFTEN WE SEE ON THE DOWN STREAM SIDE OF A
FAST MOVING VEHICLE THAT THE SMALL AND LIGHT
OBJECTS SUCH AS PAPERS, PEBBLES ETC. LIFT UP AND
MOVE IN A HAPHAZARD WAY. IT IS DUE TO PHENOMENA
CALLED WAKE.
SEPERATION OF FLOW AND THE DIFFERENCE OF
PRESSURE ON THE UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM SIDES
OF THE MOVING VEHICLE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
WAKE.
WAKE IS AN UNDESIRED SITUATION. IT SHOULD BE
AVOIDED OR MINIMISED BY PROPER PROFILING OF THE
BODY.
THE CONTOURING OF THE BODY SHOULD BE SUCH THAT
THE SEPERATION OF FLOW DOES NOT OCCUR, AND THE
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE IS NOT MUCH ON THE UPSTREAM
AND DOWNSTREAM SIDES.
TO ACHIEVE IT, THE MODERN CARS EMPLOY A REAR
SPOILER THAT ADDS TO AERODYNAMIC STYLING OF THE
BODY.

WAKE
The formed wakes can be of different sizes

according to shape of the body. The magnitude of

pressure drag depends on the size of the wake.
The size of the wake will be large in a body such as
circular disc, having sharp edges than well round
bodies.
The wake and therefore the drag force is extremely
small in case of stream lined body.
Ina well streamlined object, the friction drag is
larger than the pressure drag; even though the
total drag is about 0.02 to 0.03 only to that of the
circular disc.
The term v2 / 2 is called the dynamic pressure of
the flowing air.

RACING CAR PROFILING

The COEFFICIENT OF DRAG DEPENDS ON SHAPE OF THE

BODY IN HIGH VELOCITY AIR STREAMS. AS COMPARED

TO FLAT HEADED BODY IN WHICH CD = 0.85 AT 300 KMPH,
THIS VALUS IS ONLY 0.15 IN SHARP POINTED
PROJECTION OF RACING CARS.
HENCE RACING CARS ARE MADE OF THE PROFILE WITH
SHARP POINTED NOSE.
AS WE DESIRE CL TO BE MINIMUM, PREFERABLY ZERO,
HENCE THE BODY SHOULD BE ALIGNED IN FRONT OF
THE UPSTREAM AIR SO THAT = 0. THE DRAG
COEFFICIENT VARIES LITTLE WITH THE ANGLE OF
ATTACK.

BODY PROFILE OF A FIAT

UNO CAR

AERODYNAMIC DRAG
COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT
TYPES OF VEHICLES

RACING CARS
0.25 0.30
PASSENGER CARS 0.30 0.60
CONVERTIBLES
0.40 0.65
BUSES
0.60 0.70
TRUCKS
0.80 1.00
TRACTORS AND TRAILERS 1.25 1.35
MOTOR CYCLES
1.75 1.85

DRAG COEFFICIENT OF SOME

VEHICLES

Ethos 2 electric car 0.190

Yamaha yzf thunder coat racing motor
cycle
0.275
Yamaha fzr 600 racing motor cycle
0.300
Saab 92 (sweden) car
0.300
Citreon ds 19 car
0.311
Mercedez 300 se
0.387
Ford falcon futura 0.416
Ford mustang
0.475

DRAG REDUCTION: DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

A major drag source occurs at the very front of the car where
the maximum pressure is recorded. The lowering and
rounding of the sharp front corner together with the reduction
or elimination of the flat, forward facing surface at the very
front of the car addresses both of these drag sources.
A second seperation zone is observed at the base of the wind
screen.The research has clearly demonstrated the benefits of
the shallow screens but the raked angles desired for
aerodynamic efficiency lead to problems of reduced space,
driver head room and internal optical reflections from the
screen. An angle of 360 from the horizontal has been found to
give optimum reduction and compromise with other
drawbacks.

A bonnet slope of 50 to 100 also provides the better results in

reduction of drag coefficient.

DRAG REDUCTION: DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
rear body
the airflow over the rear surfaces of the vehicle is more
complex and the solution required to minimise the drag for
practical shapes are less intuitive.
an angle of 150 from horizontal for backlight gives the
minimum drag coefficient. but it will reduce the luggage
compartment space. it is necessary to raise the boot lid and
this has been a very clear trend in the design of the medium
and large saloon cars. this has further benefit in terms of
luggage space although rearward visibility is generally
reduced.
rear end boot lid spoilers have a similar effect without the
associated practical benefits.
one of the most effective drag reduction technique is the
adoption of boat tailing, which reduces the effective cross
sectional area at

DRAG REDUCTION: DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
rear body
the rear of the car and hence reduces the volume enclosed
within the wake. in its extreme configuration this results in
the tail extendibg to a fine point, thus eliminating any wake
flow. practical considerations prevent the adoption of such
designs but truncation of the tail for 100 inclined towards
center gives optimum aerodynamic efficiency.
under body smoothing.
smooth outside visible surfaces.
shaping of the floor pan at the rear of the car for diffused
flow.

Typical static pressure coefficient

distribution

DRAG REDUCTION BY CHANGES TO

FRONT BODY SHAPE

WAKE

INFLUENCE OF BACKLIGHT
ANGLE ON DRAG COEFFICIENT

HIGH TAIL LOW DRAG DESIGN

BOAT TAILING REDUCED

WAKE

REAR UNDER BODY DIFFUSION

PRACTICE QUESTION
the effective frontal area of a car is 1.6m2. it is moving at a
speed of 60 kmph in calm air surrounding. profile of its
body is such that the coefficient of lift and drag are 0.75
and 0.15 respectively. taking weight density of air as 1.15
kg/m3, determine
the drag force
the lift force
the resultant force and angle of the resultant force with respect to
horizontal.
power exerted by the air stream on the car.
the expected pressure distributions on bonnet, front and rear wind
screens, roof, rear hood, front and back faces of the car.

PRESSURE AND SUCTION

DISTRIBUTION IN A TYPICAL CAR BODY

STREAM TUBES FLOWING OVER

AN AERODYNAMIC BODIES

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY

GRADIENTS IN THE AIR FLOW OVER
A BODY

DEVELOPMENT OF A BOUNDARY
LAYER

FLOW SEPARATION IN AN
ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT

VORTEX SHEDDING IN FLOW

OVER A CYLINDRICAL BODY

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
ALONG THE CENTERLINE OF A
CAR

VORTEX SYSTEMS IN THE WAKE

OF A CAR

AERODYNAMIC LIFT AND DRAG FORCES

WITH DIFFERENT VEHICLE SYLES

EFFECT OF SEPARATION POINT

ON DIRT DEPOSITION IN THE
REAR

AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND

MOMENTS ACTING ON A CAR

INFLUENCE OF REAR END

INCLINATION ON GRAG

INFLUENCE OF FRONT END

DESIGN ON DRAG

INFLUENCE OF WIND SHIELD

ANGLE ON DRAG

AIR FLOW RECIRCULATION IN A

WHEEL WELL

AIR FLOW INSIDE A TYPICAL

ENGINE COMPARTMENT

INFLUENCE OF COOLING
SYSTEM ON DRAG

INFLUENCE
THE FLOW

OF A SPOILER ON
OVER THE REAR

OPTIMISATION OF BODY DETAIL

DRAG COEFFICIENT OF
VARIOUS BODIES

RELATIVE WIND SEEN BY A

MOTOR VEHICLE ON THE ROAD

AIR FLOW AROUND A TRACTOR

SEMITRAILER WITH 30 0 WIND ANGLE

INFLUENCE OF YAW ANGLE ON DRAG

COEFFICIENT OF TYPICAL VEHICLE
TYPES

SIDE FORCE COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION

OF YAW ANGLE FOR A TYPICAL VEHICLE

VARIATION OF PITCHING MOMENT

COEFFICIENT WITH BODY PITCH ANGLE

YAW MOMENT COEFFICIENT AS A

FUNCTION OF YAW ANGLE FOR A TYPICAL
VEHICLE

CORRELATION OF SUBJECTIVE RATINGS

WITH NORMALISED RMS YAW RATE
RESPONSE

CORRELATION OF SUBJECTIVE RATINGS

WITH NORMALISED RMS YAW RATE
RESPONSE (CONTD)
VEHICLE CONFIGURATIONS:
BASELINE
FORWARD CP
REARWARD CP
320 LB REAR BALLAST
BASELINE AND REDUCED ROLL STIFFNESS
FORWARD CP AND REDUCED ROLL STIFFNESS
FORWARD CD, REAR BALLAST AND REDUCED ROLL
STIFFNESS

CROSS WIND LATERAL ACCELERATION

RESPONSE WITH VARIATION OF CP
LOCATION

ROLLING RESISTANCE
MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR ROLLING
RESISTANCE:
Energy loss due to deflection of the tyre sidewall near the contact
area
Energy loss due to deflection of tread elements
Scrubbing in the contact patch
Tyre slip in the longitudinal and lateral directions
Deflection of the road surface
Air drag on the inside and outside of the tyre
Energy loss on bumps
Total resistance is the sum of the resistances from all the wheels.
Rx = Rxf + Rxr = fr W
Where,
Rxf = rolling resistance of the front wheels
Rxr = rolling resistance of the rear wheels
fr = rolling resistance coefficient or specific rolling
resistance

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Tte coefficient of rolling resistance, fr, is a

dimensionless factor that expresses the effects of
the complicated and interdependent physical
properties of tyre and ground.
Tyre temperature. In the typical situation where a tyre begins
rolling from a cold condition, the temperature rises and the rolling
resistance will diminish over a first period of travel. The tyre must
roll at least 30 km before the system approaches the stable rolling
resistance.
RELATIVE
TYRE
TEMPERATUE
AND
ROLLING RESISTANCE
DURING WARM UP

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Tyre inflation pressure / load. The tyre inflation determines the

tyre elasticity and in combination with the load, determines the
deflection in the side walls and contact region. The overall effect on
rolling resistance also depends on the elasticity of the ground.
On soft surfaces like sand, high
inflation
pressures
result
in
increased ground penetration work
and therefore higher coefficient.
Conversely, lower inflation pressure,
while
decreasing
the
ground
penetration, increases tyre flexture
work. Thus, the optimum pressure
depends on the surface deformation
characteristics

COEFFICIENT
OF
ROLLING RESISTANCE
VERSUS
INFLATION
PRESSURE

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Velocity. The coefficient is directly proportional to speed because

of increased flexing work and vibration in the tyre body, although
the effect is small at moderate and low speeds and often assumed to
be constant for calculation.
fr = A + BV
fr = f0 + 3.24fs (V / 100)2.5
Where v = speed in mph; f0 =
basic coefficient; fs = speed
effect coefficient
ROLLING RESISTANCE
VERSUS SPEED

COEFFICIENT FOR ROLLING RESISTANCE

ON A CONCRETE SURFACE

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Velocity.
At the university of michigan transportation research institute:
fr = (0.0041 + 0.000041V) Ch
radial tyres
fr = (0.0066 + 0.000046V) Ch
bias-ply tyres
Where,
V = speed in miles per hour
Ch = road surface coefficient
= 1.0 for smooth surface
= 1.2 for worn concrete, brick, cold black top
= 1.5 for hot black top

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Tyre material and design. The materials and thickness of both

tyre sidewalls (usually expressed in plies) and the tread determine
the stiffness and energy loss in the rolling tyres. Worn out, smooth
tread tyres show coefficient values up to 20% lower than new tyres.
Fine laminations, on the other
hand, increase the coefficient
as much as 25%. The cord
material in the sidewall has
only a small effect, but the
cord angle and tyre belt
properties have a significance
influence.
ROLLING
RESISTANCE
VERSUS TEMPERATURE
OF
TYRES
WITH
DIFFERENT POLYMERS

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE

Tyre slip. Wheels transferring tractive or braking forces show

higher rolling resistance due to wheel slip and the resulting frictional
scuffing. Cornering forces produce the same effects. At a few degree
of slip, equivalent to moderate high cornering accelerations, the
Rolling resistance coefficient
may
nearly
double
in
magnitude. The effect is
readily observed in normal
driving when one will scrub
off speed in a corner.
Fr = Rx / W = CW / D (ht / w)0.5
ROLLING RESISTANCE
COEFFICIENT VERSUS
SLIP ANGLE

FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING

RESISTANCE
Where,

Rx = rolling resistance force

W = weight on the wheel
C =constant reflecting loss and elastic
characteristics of the tyre material
D = outside diameter
ht = tyre section height
w = tyre section width
ROLLING RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT FOR VARIOUS
SOILS
VEHICLE
SURFACE
CONCRETE

MEDIUM / HARD

SAND

PASSENGER
CARS

0.015

0.08

0.30

HEAVY TRUCKS

0.012

0.05

0.25

TRACTORS

0.02

0.04

0.20

GRADIENT RESISTENCE
A vehicle, while climbing uphill, in addition to the rolling
resistances also faces gradient resistance. This gradient resistance
keeps increasing with increase in gradient and a vehicle with
adequate power would keep climbing till it starts slipping back
(Because of lack of ground traction.
RG = W sin
If we happen to see the performance curve for self propelled
vehicles, on the fine grained soils for 50 passes we can see that
maximum slope for vehicles is just 60% or 0.60.
Hence Sin = 0.60
or = 36.80
PWD roads can not have gradient more than 18. Border Roads can
have max gradient upto 22. The vehicle (Light trucks and Cars)
are tested for 300 gradients.

TOTAL ROAD LOADS

RRL = fr W + 0.5 A V2 Cd + W sin
Power = RRL . V = (fr W + 0.5 A V2 Cd + W sin ) .
V

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A heavy truck weighing 72,500 Ib rolls along I70 in Denver at
a speed of 67 mph. The air temperature is550F ad the barometric
pressure is 26.01 in Hg. The truck is 8 wide by 13.5 high, and has
an aerodynamic drag coefficient of 0.65. The truck has radial-ply
tires. Calculate the aerodynamic drag, the rolling
resistance(according to the SAE equations) and the road load
horsepower at there conditions.
2. A passenger car has a frontal area of 2I square feet and a drag
coefficient of 0.42. It is traveling a long at 55mph. Calculate the
aerodynamic drag and the associated horsepower requirements if
it is driving into a 25 mph headwind and with a 25 mph tailwind.