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MEC 551
551
THERMAL
THERMAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING
3.0 Convection
Convection Analysis
Convection Analysis
Convection Principles
There are two types of convection:
Natural or Free Convection:
Fluid motion is caused by natural
means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as
the rise of warmer air and the fall
of cooler air.
Forced Convection:
Fluid is forced to flow over a
surface by external means (such
as a pump or fan).
Convection Principles
Internal:
Fluid is forced to flow in
a pipe or channel.
INTERNAL
External:
EXTERNAL
Convection Principles
The difference between external and internal flows is
shown in the figure below:
External Flow
Internal
Flow
Convection Principles
(Newtons Law of Cooling)
Q conv h As Ts T
Convection Principles
(Nusselt Number)
Nusselt Number
Developed by Wilhelm Nusselt
(1882-1957) from Germany
In convection analysis, it is
common practice to nondimensionalized the governing
equations and combine the
variables, which group together in
dimensionless numbers to reduce
the number of variables.
9
Convection Principles
(Nusselt Number)
The Nusselt number is a non-dimensionalized h,
defined as:
hLc
Nu
k
Lc - Characteristic Length
k - Thermal conductivity of fluid
10
Convection Principles
(Nusselt Number)
Since:
Heat transfer by conduction occurs when the fluid
is motionless and
Heat transfer by convection occurs when the fluid
involves some motion.
In either case, the heat flux is the rate of heat
transfer per unit time per unit surface area.
q conv h T
q cond
T
k
L
11
Convection Principles
(Nusselt Number)
q conv h T h L
k T
Nu
q cond
k
L
Convection Principles
(Viscosity)
Viscosity
A measure of the internal stickiness of
the fluid. The friction force between two
fluid layers moving relative to one
another. Caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in the liquids
and by the molecular collisions in the
gases.
There are two expressions for viscosity:
Dynamic viscosity (or absolute
viscosity),
Kinematic viscosity,
13
Convection Principles
(Viscosity)
Dynamic viscosity ( ) The shear force per unit area
du
dy
14
Convection Principles
(Viscosity)
Viscous flows
Flows in which the effects of
viscosity are significant.
Inviscid flows
Flows in which the effects of
viscosity is small and can be
neglected without much loss in
accuracy. Frictionless or
idealized flows.
15
Convection Principles
(Compressibility)
Compressible flow
Gases are highly compressible, meaning
that there is a significant density change of
fluid during flow (e.g. air).
Gas
Incompressible flow
Densities that are essentially constant,
such as many liquids (e.g. water).
Liquid
16
Convection Principles
(Types of Flows)
Laminar Flow
Highly ordered fluid motion
such as the flow of highly
viscosity fluids like oil at low
velocities.
Turbulent Flow
Highly disordered (or
chaotic) flow that typically
occurs at high velocities.
17
Convection Principles
(Types of Flows)
Steady Flow
No change in the flow with time
t+Dt
t+2Dt
Unsteady Flow
The flow changes with time
t+Dt
t+2Dt
18
Convection Principles
(Types of Flows)
Uniform Flow
No change in the fluid velocity or volume over a specified
region.
Non-uniform Flow
19
20
Convection Principles
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
A velocity boundary layer can be
defined
No slip condition
When the fluid is forced to flow over a
solid surface that is non-porous (e.g.
impermeable fluid), it is observed that the
fluid in motion comes to a complete stop
at the surface and there is no slip.
Because the fluid layer adjacent to the wall
sticks (due to friction), it slows the next
layer and so on. So a consequence of the
no-slip condition is that all velocity
profiles must have zero values at points of
contact with fluid and solid.
u
y
x
Heated Surface
21
Convection Principles
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
Velocity boundary development on a flat plate:
u 0.99 u
22
Convection Principles
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
The dashed line, divides the flow
over the plate into two regions:
Boundary layer region
In which the viscous effects and
velocity changes are significant.
Inviscid flow region
In which the friction effects are
negligible and the velocity
remains constant.
Inviscid
Flow
Boundary
Layer
x
Heated Surface
23
Convection Principles
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
Flow regions in velocity boundary of a flat plate:
24
Convection Principles
(Velocity Boundary Layer)
Comparison of a laminar and turbulent velocity
boundary layer profile:
25
Convection Principles
(Thermal Boundary Layer)
Likewise there is a thermal
boundary layer
x
Heated Surface
26
Convection Principles
(Thermal Boundary Layer)
Thermal boundary development on a flat plate:
Ts+0.99(T-Ts)
DT=T-Ts=0.99(T-Ts)
27
Convection Principles
(Prandtl Number)
Prandtl Number
Developed by Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) of
Germany.
The relative thickness of the velocity and
thermal boundary layers is best described by
a dimensionless Prandtl number (below):
Cp
k
28
Convection Principles
(Reynolds Number)
Reynolds Number
Derived by Osbourne Reynolds (1842-1912)
of Britain
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness, free stream velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid (among other
things).
However, the flow regime primarily depends
upon the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces in a fluid. This is a dimensionless
quantity, known as Reynolds number (Re).
29
Convection Principles
(Reynolds Number)
The Reynolds number is defined as:
Inertia Forces V L V L
Re
Viscous Forces
V upstream velocity
L characteristic length
n = m/r kinematic viscosity of fluid
30
Convection Principles
(Reynolds Number)
Inertia Forces V L V L
Re
Viscous Forces
Convection Principles
(Reynolds Number)
For flow over a flat plate, the generally accepted
value of Recrit is:
Re crit
Flat Plate:
where:
xcrit=
u xcrit
5 105
32
33
External Flow
The convection equations for an external flow can be
derived from the conservation of mass, conservation
of energy, and the conservation of momentum
equations.
34
m x u dy 1
dv
v dy
dy
Unit Area
m y v dx 1
Unit Area
dx
u
u dx
x
dy
35
Rate of mass
flow out of
control volume
u
v
u dy v dx u dx dy v dy dx
x
y
u
v
u dy v dx u dy dx dy v dx dx dy
x
y
u v
0
x y
dy
y
ma = Net Force
P
dy
P
P
dx
x
dx
37
In the x-direction:
2u 2u
u
u
P
u v
2 g x
2
x
y x
Body force
Net
per unit
du
pressure
force
volume
In the y-direction:
2v 2v
v
v
P
u v
2 g y
2
x
y y
x
y
Body force
dv
Net
pressure
force
per unit
volume
38
E in E out 0
Eheat out, y
Eheat in, x
Emass out, y
dx
Eheat out, x
dy
Emass in, x
Emass out, x
Eheat in, y
Emass in, y
39
2T 2T
T
T
k
C p u
v
2 2
2
y
y
x
x
v
u v
u
x
y
y x
2
2T 2T
T
T
k
C p u
v
2
2
y
y
x
x
40
Boundary layer
dy
dx
u(x,0)= 0
v(x,0)= 0
T(x,0)= Ts
u v
0
x y
Momentum:
u
u
2u
u
v
2
x
y
y
Energy:
T
T
2T
u
v
2
x
y
y
42
u(0,y)= u,
At y= 0:
u(x,0)= 0,
At y= :
u(x, )= u,
T(0,y)= T
v(x,0)= 0,
T(x,0)= Ts
T(x, )= T
u
y
x
43
u
; v
y
x
Dependent variable:
x u y
u
u
44
x df
u
df
u
u
y y
u d x
d
x df u
v
u
x
x
u dx 2
1 u
2
x
f
u x
df
f
d
45
u
u d 2 f
2
x
2 x d
2
u
d f
x d 2
u
u
y
u u d f
3
2
y
x
2
46
d3 f
d2 f
2 3f
0
2
d
d
EQN 6-49
text
47
f 0 0
df
0
d 0
df
1
d
48
df
u
0.992
d u
5.0
A value of:
corresponds to:
u
0.99
u
49
5.0; y
u
y
x
For laminar
flat plate:
u
5
x
5.0
5.0 x
u
Re
x
u x
where : Re
EQN 6-51
text
50
T x, y Ts
x, y
T Ts
2
u
v
2
x
y
y
u
y
x
d d
df d d 1 u df
d d
2
d d dx 2
x d
d dy 52
d dy
2
u
Since: y
x
d
1
u
y
dx
2
x
3
2
u
y
2
u x
d
u
dy
x
53
and:
x u y
u
u
df
d u y
54
df d d 1 u
u
d d dx 2
x
d d
df
d d
2
d dy
d
d dy
d y u 1 u
u
x
u y d 2u x 2
d 2 u
2
d x
u d
u
y
x
u
y
u
y
d x
55
2 d u x
d 2 u
2
d x
u
u 1
u
x
x u
x u y
u
x
u 1
u
d 2
2
2
u
x
x
x
xy
u
d
56
x u
u
d 2
2
2
u
x
u
x
u
y
d
Prandtl number
Pr
d
d 2
2 2
d
d u y
Pr
f
d 2
d
2 2 Pr f
0
d
d
EQN 6-58
text
57
1
d
0.332 Pr 3
d 0
58
T
y
y 0
T Ts
y
u
Since: y
x
y 0
then:
T Ts
0 y
y 0
y
x
T
y
u
0.332 Pr T Ts
x
1
y 0
59
T
y y 0
q s
hx
Ts T
Ts T
k 0.332 Pr
Ts T
Ts T
u
x
u
hx 0.332 Pr k
x
1
60
hx x
Nu x
k
Thus for Pr > 0.6, the local Nusselt number for laminar flow is:
Nu x 0.332 Pr Re
1
61
wall
y 0
u d f
u
2
x d
wall
0.332 u2
Re x
62
wall
1
C F , x u2
2
CF , x
2 wall
12
0.664 Re x
2
u
63
The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate can be
obtained by integrating over its length:
L
1
h hx dx
L0
0.332 Pr k
h
L
1
u
dx
x
0.332 Pr 3 k u
2 x
L
L
0
0.664 Pr 3 k u L
0.664 k Pr Re
L
1
64
65
13
13
t
Pr Pr
1.026
66
y
x
50 m
67
y
80 C
50 m
This is just the average of the surface temperature and the fluid
bulk temperature.
T film
Ts T 80C 40C
60C
2
2
68
y
80 C
50 m
983.3
4.67
m3
kg
m s
k 0.654
Pr 2.99
kg
W
m C
69
u
Re
x 983.3 4
kg
m3
4.67
m
s
kg
m s
1
4
50 m
10,527.8
Therefore:
5 504m
5 x
0.609 m
Re
10,527.8
Pr
0.609 m 2.99
t
1.026
1.026
13
13
0.412 m
70
Example 3.1b
u
Re
L 983.3 4 50 m
42,111 .3
kg
m3
4.67
m
s
kg
m s
kg
m
983
.
3
s
m
0.332 2.99 0.654 mWC
4.67 mkgs 50 m
1
0.619
W
m C
2
72
q h (Ts T )
0.619
W
m 2 C
80C 40C
24.8 mW2
73
74
Note: if it had been found that the boundary layer was not
completely laminar another equation for h could have been
used instead.
Nu 0.037 Re Pr
0.8
L
0.6 Pr 60
5 105 Re 107
Nu 0.037 Re 871 Pr
0.8
L
0.6 Pr 60
5 105 Re L 107
75
T film
T Ts 25C 45C
35C
2
2
Pr 3,711
3.5 10
4 m2
s
k 0.2864
W
m C
1,255 m3
kg
77
40 m
x
20 m
2
Re mid
po int
u x 5 ms 20 m
5
2
.
86
10
4 m2
3.5 10 s
Re mid Re crit
po int
78
x 20
5 x
5 20 m
0.187 m or 18.7 cm
Re
2.86 105
13
t
Pr
1.026
0.187 m
13
Re end
u L 5 ms 40 m
5
5
.
714
10
4 m2
3.5 10 s
xcrit
Re crit
5 10 3.5 10
m
s
4 m2
s
35 m
80
Nu 0.037 Re 871 Pr
0 .8
L
0.037 5.7110
5 0 .8
9,600.7
Nu k
h
L
9,600.7 0.2864
40 m
871 3,711
W
m C
68.7
W
m C
2
81
Q h As Ts T
68.7
W
m 2 C
40 m 1 m 45C 25C
54,960 W
82
Forced Convection
(on Cylinders and Spheres)
Flows across cylinders and
spheres, in general, involve
flow separation which is
difficult to handle analytically.
Thus these must be studied
empirically or experimentally
Several correlations have
been developed for the heat
transfer coefficient (h).
83
Forced Convection
(on Cylinders and Spheres)
Churchill and Bernstein developed this empirical
equation for flow over a cylinder (Eqn. 7-35 in text):
Nucyl
hD
0.62 Re Pr
Re
0.3
1
1
2
4
k
282,000
1 0Pr.4 3
1
Nu sph
2
hD
1
2
2 0.4 Re 0.06 Re 3
k
0.4
Pr
s
84
Forced Convection
(over Circular and Non-Circular Cylinders)
85
Forced Convection
(over Circular and Non-Circular Cylinders)
86
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Example 3.3 A long 10-cm diameter hexagonal steam pipe
whose external surface temperature is 110C passes through
some open area that is not protected against the wind.
Determine the rate of heat loss when the air is at 1 atm
pressure and 10C and the wind is blowing across a 1-m length
of pipe at a velocity of 8 m/s.
V = 8 m/s
T = 10C
Ts=110C
10 cm
1m
87
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
The properties of air at the average film temperature
of:
T film
Ts T 110 C 10C
60C
2
2
k 0.02808
W
m C
1.896 10
Pr 0.7202
5 m 2
s
88
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
The Reynolds number is:
V D 8 ms 0.10 m
4
Re
4
.
219
10
5 m 2
1.896 10 s
The Nusselt number can be determined from Table 7-1
in the text book:
Nu 0.153 Re
0.638
Pr
0.153 4.219 10
122.5
4 0.638
0.7202
89
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Therefore:
k
h Nu
D
0.02808 mWC
122.5 34.4
0.10 m
The surface area of the hexagon is:
D
As 6
L
2 sin 60
3 0.10 m 1 m
sin 60
0.346 m 2
W
m 2 C
D/2
60
90
Forced Convection
(Example 3.3)
Therefore, the heat transfer is:
Q h As Ts T
34.4
W
2
m C
1,191.7 W
91
Example 1
92
Example 2
93
Example 3
94
95
Non-dimensionalized
convection equations
The continuity , momentum, and energy equations for steady,
incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant properties
can be non-dimensionalized by dividing all the dependent and
independent variables, as follows:
x
y
*
x ; y ;
L
L
u
v
*
*
u
; v
V
V
*
T Ts
P
*
P
; T
2
V
T Ts
Surface temperature
Free stream temperature
96
Non-dimensionalized
convection equations
Introducing these variables the equations become:
Continuity:
u * v*
* 0
*
x y
Momentum:
*
*
2 *
*
u
1
u
dP
u * * v* *
*2 *
x
y
Re L y
dx
Energy:
*
*
2
T
1
T
*
*
u
v
*2
*
*
x
y
Re L Pr y
97
Non-dimensionalized
convection equations
u * 0, y * 1
v* x* ,0 0
u * x* ,0 0
u * x* , 1
T * 0, y * 1
T * x* ,0 0
T * x* , 1
u, T
y*
Ts
x*
98
Similarity
Where:
V L
Re L
Pr
Similarity
A major advantage in non-dimensionalizing is the
significant reduction in the number of similarity
parameters.
Original equations have 6 parameters: (L, V, T, Ts,
a, and n)
The non-dimensionalized equations have only 2
parameters (ReL and Pr).
100
Similarity
For a given geometry, problems that have the same
values of similarity parameters (ReL and Pr) have
identical solutions.
101
Similarity
Example: Determining the convection heat transfer
coefficient (h) for flow over a given surface will require
numerical solutions or experiments with several sets of:
Velocities (V )
Surface lengths (L)
Wall temperatures (Ts)
Free stream temperatures (T).
102
Similarity
103
Similarity
Another advantage is that data from a large group of
experiments can be conveniently reported in the
terms of the similarity parameters.
104
105
Forced Convection
(Drag Force)
106
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
In forced convection analysis, we are primarily
interested in the determination of quantities of:
The coefficient of friction (CF) (to calculate the
shear stress at the wall)
Nusselt number (Nu) ( to calculate the heat
transfer rates).
Therefore, it is desirable to have a relation between
CF and Nu, so that we can calculate one when the
other is available.
107
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since:
u f1 x , y , Re L
*
y 0
V u *
L y *
y* 0
f 2 x* , Re L
L
108
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Substituting this into its definition gives the local
friction coefficient:
C f ,x
s
V2
V
L
u *
y * y * 0
V2
2
f 2 x* , Re L
Re L
f 3 x , Re L
*
2 u
*
Re y
y * 0
109
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Similarly, solving the energy equation for the
dimensionless temperature (T*) for a given geometry
gives:
T g1 x , y , Re L , Pr
*
k Ty
y 0
Ts T
110
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since:
T Ts
T
Ts T
*
y
y
L
*
y
x
for local
Then:
T Ts T T * Ts Ts T T *
*
*
y
y x
x
y
111
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Therefore:
k T Ts T
h
*
x Ts T y
k T
*
L y
y * 0
y * 0
112
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Substituting this into the local Nusselt number
equation gives:
T *
h x x k T *
Nu x
*
k
k x y y*0
y *
y * 0
T g1 x , y , Re L , Pr
*
Therefore:
T *
Nu x *
y
g 2 x* , Re L , Pr
y * 0
113
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Note: the Nusselt number is equivalent to the
dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface, and
this is why it is sometimes called the dimensionless heat
transfer coefficient (h).
114
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The average friction and heat transfer coefficients
are determined by integrating the local CF,x and Nux
over the surface of the given body with respect to x*
(from 0 to 0.1), which removes the dependence on x*
and thus gives:
C F f 4 Re L
and
Nu g 3 Re L , Pr
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The experimental data for heat transfer is often
represented (with reasonable accuracy) by a simple
power law relation of the form:
Nu C Re Pr
m
L
116
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Summary, so far (Fig 6-31 in text book):
117
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Now if we simplify the momentum and energy
equations by assuming:
Pr
P=*1 (which is approximately true for gases)
For Pr = 1, the
thermal and
velocity boundary
layers coincide
118
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
The equations then become:
Momentum:
*
*
2 *
u
1
u
*
*
u
v
*2
*
*
x
y
Re L y
Energy:
*
*
2 *
T
1
T
*
*
u
v
*2
*
*
x
y
Re L y
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since the boundary conditions are also identical:
Recall:
Then:
u x ,0 0
u x , 1
u * 0, y * 1
*
u *
y *
y * 0
T x ,0 0
T x , 1
T * 0, y * 1
*
T *
*
y
y * 0
Equation
*
120
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Since as previously derived:
2 u
CF
*
Re y
k T
h *
L y
and
u *
y *
y * 0
C F , x Re
2
and
T *
y *
y * 0
hL
Nu x
k
121
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Therefore substituting these values into Equation
gives:
u
*
y
Nu x
C F , x Re
2
T
*
y
y * 0
y * 0
or
St x
CF , x
2
122
Forced Convection
(Stanton Number)
Reynolds Analogy can also be
expressed in terms of the Stanton
number (St).
This was derived by Sir Thomas
Edward Stanton (1865-1931) from
England
h
Nu
St
C P V Re Pr
123
Forced Convection
(Reynolds Analogy)
Reynolds Analogy is important because it allows us
to determine the heat transfer coefficient (h) for fluids
where Pr = 1, from knowledge of the friction
coefficient (which is easier to measure).
124
Forced Convection
(Chilton-Colburn Analogy)
However, the Reynolds number is of limited use
because of the restrictions:
Pr = 1
P *
0
*
x
Therefore it is desirable to have an analogy that is
applicable over a wide range of Pr.
This is done by adding a Prandtl number correction125
.
Forced Convection
(Chilton-Colburn Analogy)
Recall as previously derived:
C F , x 0.664 Re
12
x
and
Nu x 0.332 Pr Re x2
1
Nu x Pr
CF , x
Re L jH
2
hx
jH
Pr 3
2
C p V
126
Forced Convection
(Chilton-Colburn Analogy)
The Chilton-Colburn Analogy is derived using:
Laminar flow
Over a flat plate ( P 0 )
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Example 3.4 Laminar flow profile
over a vertical plate. A 2 x 3 m plate
is suspended in a room and subject
to air flow parallel to its surfaces
along its 3 m side. The total drag
force acting on the plate is 0.86 N.
Determine the average heat transfer
3m
coefficient (h) for the plate:
kg
kJ
1.204 3 ; C p 1.007
m
kg
Pr 0.7309
Air Flow
T= 15C
V = 7 m/s
Ts=25C
2m
128
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Set L= 3 m ~ Characteristic length
Since both sides of the plate are exposed to the air (and
considering the thickness negligibly small) the total surface area
is:
As 2 w L
2 2 m 3 m 12 m
129
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
For all flat plates:
F friction D C F As V
1
2
Therefore:
2 D
2 0.86 N
CF
2
As V 1.204 mkg3 12 m 2 7
m 2
s
0.00243
130
Forced Convection
(Example 3.4)
Then from the modified Reynolds analogy (ChiltonColburn) the average heat transfer coefficient (h) can
be calculated:
C F V C p
h
2
2
Pr 3
0.00243 1.204
2
12.7 m W
2
C
kg
m3
7 1007
m
s
0.7309
J
kg C
131
3.6 Convection in an
internal flow
132
Internal Flow
Internal flow relates to flow through fixed conduits
such as pipes or ducts.
133
Internal Flow
(Non-Circular Tubes)
For flow through noncircular tubes Re and Nu,
are based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh.
4 Ac
Dh
p
Vm Dh
Re
Internal Flow
(Mean Velocity)
Because the velocity varies over the cross-section it
is necessary to work with a mean velocity (Vm) when
dealing with internal flows.
m Ac Vm
m
Vm
Ac
135
Internal Flow
(Circular Tubes)
In a circular tube:
D2
4
4 Ac 4
Dh
D
p
D
Vm D
Re
Re < 2,300
2,300 < Re < 10,000
Re > 10,000
laminar flow
transitional flow
turbulent flow
136
Internal Flow
(Entrance Region)
137
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm
u(y)
Oil
k= 0.145 W/(mK)
= 0.8 kg/(ms)
138
Assumptions:
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm
u(y)
Oil
k= 0.145 W/(mK)
= 0.8 kg/(ms)
139
Solution:
u v
0
x y
u
0
x
u u( y)
Continuity Equation:
P
0
x
The x-component of velocity does not change. Since
also, the
flow is maintained by the upper plate and not the pressure gradient.
140
x-momentum equation:
2
2
u
v
u u P
u v
2
g x
2
y
y x
x
x
u
0
2
y
2
u C1 y C2
141
0 C1 0 C2
V C1 L 0
C2 0
V
C1
L
142
y
u V
L
143
0 0
2T 2T
T
T
k
C p u
v
2
2
y
y
x
x
02
0
2 0
2
u
v u v
2
y y x
x
u
T
0k
2
y
y
2
144
y
u V
L
u V
y L
T
V
k 2
y
L
2
145
y
T V C3 y C 4
2k L
y 0 : T0 C4
2
L
y L : T0 V C3 L T0
2k L
2
C3
V
2kL
146
y
y 2
2
T 2 V
V T0
2k L
2kL
2
V y y
2
T0
2k L L
2
147
T V 2
y
1 2 0
y
2kL
L
y
1 2
L
L 0.002 m
y
0.001 m
2
2
148
This means that the maximum temperature will occur at the midplane (y= 1 mm), which is not surprising since both planes are
maintained at the same temperature.
Tmax
V 2 L2 L2
T0
2
2k L L
V 2
T0
8k
N s
m 2
0.8 m 2 12 s 1 W
119 C
20C
149
dT
q 0 k
dy
y 0
V 2
y
k
1 2
2kL
L
0.8 12 1 W
V
N m
2L
2 0.002 m 1 s
W
28,800 2
m
2
N s
m2
m 2
s
150
dT
q L k
dy
yL
V 2
L
k
1 2
2kL
L
0.8 12 1 W
V
N m
2L
2 0.002 m 1 s
W
28,800 2
Correct !
m
2
N s
m2
m 2
s
151
L= 2 mm
T=20C
V= 12 m/s
T=119C
Discussion of example
q 28.8
kW
m2
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm
q 28.8
kW
m2
154
Free Convection
Warm air
Heat
Transfer
Cold
can
Cold air
155
Free Convection
(Volume Expansion Coefficient)
In heat transfer, the primary variable is the
temperature, so it is desirable to express the net
buoyancy force in terms of a temperature difference.
This requires knowledge of a property that represents the
variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.
This is called the volume expansion coefficient () which is
defined as:
P
156
Free Convection
(Volume Expansion Coefficient)
1
1
T
T T
T T
157
Free Convection
(Volume Expansion Coefficient)
For an ideal gas:
R T
1
P
RT
T T
P
RT
158
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
The velocity and temperature for natural
convection over a vertical plate are
shown in the figure.
As in forced convection, the boundary
layer thickness increases in the flow
direction
Unlike forced convection, the fluid
velocity (u) is 0 at the outer edge of
the boundary layer as well as the
surface of the plate.
This is expected since the fluid
beyond the boundary layer is
motionless.
159
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
u
u
2u P
u v 2
g
y
y
x
x
P
g
x
160
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
P P x P x
Since:
P P
g
x
x
Then the momentum equation
becomes:
2
u
v
u
u v 2 g
y
y
x
EQN 9-13
in text
u
v
2u
u v 2 g T T
y
y
x
u
v
2u
u
v 2 g T T
x
y
y
161
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
If we now non-dimensionalize this x-momentum
equation, we get:
3
*
2 *
g Ts T Lc T
1 u
* u
* u
u
v
*2
2
*
*
2
x
y
Re L Re L y
*
Grashof Number
162
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
The Grashof number is derived by
Franz Grashof (1826-1893) from
Germany.
g Ts T L3c
GrL
2
163
Free Convection
(Grashof Number)
Gr is a measure of the relative
magnitudes of the buoyancy force
and the opposing viscous force
acting on the fluid
164
Free Convection
(Raleigh Number)
Lord Raleigh (1842-1919) from
England derived the Raleigh Number
Ra Gr Pr
g Ts T L
RaL
Pr
2
3
c
165
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Example 3.6 A 6-m long section of 8-cm diameter
horizontal hot water pipe passes through a large
room. The pipe surface temperature is 70 C.
Determine the heat loss from the pipe by natural
convection.
Ts= 70 C
T= 20 C
D= 8 cm
L= 6 m
166
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Assume:
T film
Ts T 70C 20C
45C
2
2
k 0.02699
m C
; 1.749 10
sec
; Pr 0.7241
167
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
The volumetric expansion coefficient () is:
1
1
1
Lc D 0.08 m
168
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Therefore the Raleigh Number is:
g Ts T D 3
RaD
Pr
2
3
m
1
9.81 s 2 318 K 343 K 293 K 0.08 m 0.7241
5 m 2 2
1.749 10 s
1.869 10 6
169
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Table 9-1 in the text book gives average Nusselt
numbers for natural convection over surfaces.
170
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Thus Nu is:
Nu D 0.60
0.387 RaD6
1
0.559
1
Pr
16
27
0.60
0.387 1.869 10 6
0.559
1
0.7241
16
17.4
27
171
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Then:
0.02699 mWC
k
h Nu
17.4 5.869
0.08 m
D
W
m 2 C
As D L
0.08 m 6 m 1.508 m 2
172
Free Convection
(Example 3.6)
Therefore the heat transfer is:
Q h As Ts T
5.869
W
m C
442.5 W
173
174