Alternating Voltages

and Currents

Introduction
Electricity is produced by generators at power
stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system)
to industry and for domestic use.
It is easier and cheaper to generate alternating
current (a.c.) than direct current (d.c.) and a.c. is
more conveniently distributed than d.c. since its
voltage can be readily altered using transformers.
When- ever d.c. is needed in preference to a.c.,
devices called rectifiers are used for conversion.

Introduction
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant
angular velocity symmetrically between the poles of
a magnet system as shown in Figure 14.1.

Introduction

An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faradays

Laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its
direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is
shown in Figure 14.2. In positions (a), (e) and (i) the
conductors of the loop are effectively moving along
the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no
e.m.f. is induced.

Introduction
In position (c) maximum flux is cut and hence
maxi- mum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g),
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is
again induced.

Introduction
However, using Flemings right-hand rule, the
induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that in
position (c) and is thus shown as E.

Introduction
In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut
and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such
positions of the coil are considered, in one
revolution of the coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f.
is produced as shown. This is the principle of
operation of the a.c. generator (i.e. the alternator).

Waveforms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are
plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is
called a waveform. Some typical waveforms are
shown in Figure 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are
unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary
considerably with time, they flow in one direction
only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and
become negative) and negative).

Waveforms
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating
waveforms since their quantities are continually
changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and
negative).

Waveforms
A waveform of the type shown in Figure 14.3(g)
is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the
waveform of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and
thus the mains electricity supply is of sinusoidal
form.

Waveforms
One complete series of values is called a cycle
(i.e. from O to P in Figure 14.3(g)).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the
periodic time, T, of the waveform.

Waveforms
The number of cycles completed in one second
is called the frequency, f, of the supply and is
measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of
the electricity supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz.
T = 1/f or f = 1/T

Waveforms
Problem 1.
Determine the periodic time for frequencies
of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
a) Periodic time T=1/f = 1/50 = 0.02s or 20ms
(b) Periodic time T = 1/f = 1/20000 = 0.00005s or
50 s

Waveforms
Problem 2.
Determine the frequencies for periodic times
of (a) 4 ms, (b) 4 s.
(a) Frequency f = 1/T = 1/4103 = 250Hz
(b) Frequency f = 1/T = 1/4106 = 250,000 Hz or
250 kHz or 0.25 MHz

Waveforms
Problem 3.
An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8
ms. What is its frequency?
Time for 1 cycle = 8/5 ms = 1.6ms = periodic time
T
Frequency f = 1/T =1/1.6103 = 625Hz

A.C. Values
Instantaneous values are the values of the
alternating quantities at any instant of time.
They are represented by small letters, i, , e,
etc. (see Figures 14.3(f) and (g)).

A.C. Values
The largest value reached in a half cycle is
called the peak value or the maximum value or the
amplitude of the waveform. Such values are
represented by Vm , Im , etc. (see Figures 14.3(f)
and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown in
Figure 14.3(g) and is the difference between the
maximum and minimum values in a cycle.

A.C. Values
The average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the
average value measured over a half cycle, (since
over a complete cycle the average value is zero).
Average or mean value = area under the curve
length of base

A.C. Values
The area under the curve is found by
approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule,
the mid-ordinate rule or Simpsons rule. Average
values are represented by VAV, IAV, etc.
For a sine wave, average value = 0.637
maximum value(i.e. 2/ maximum value)

A.C. Values
The effective value of an alternating current is
that current which will produce the same heating
effect as an equivalent direct current.
The effective value is called the root mean
square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an alternating
quantity is given, it is assumed to be the r.m.s.
value.

A.C. Values
For example, the domestic mains supply in
Great Britain is 240 V and is assumed to mean 240
V r.m.s.
The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I , V , E ,
etc. For a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in
Figure 14.4 the r.m.s. value is given by:

A.C. Values

The values of form and peak factors give an

indication of the shape of waveforms.

A.C. Values
Problem 4.
For the periodic waveforms shown in Figure
14.5 determine for each: (i) frequency (ii) average
value over half a cycle (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) form
factor and (v) peak factor.

A.C. Values
(a)Triangular waveform (Figure 14.5(a))
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle = 20ms = periodic
time, T.
Hence frequency f = 1/T = 1/20103 = 50Hz

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

A.C. Values
Assuming the negative
half cycle is identical in
shape to the positive half
cycle, plot the waveform and
find (a) the frequency of the
supply, (b) the instantaneous
values of current after 1.25
ms and 3.8 ms, (c) the peak
or maximum value, (d) the
mean or average value, and
(e) the r.m.s. value of the
waveform.

A.C. Values

A.C. Values

Electrical Safety Insulation

and Fuses
Insulation is used to prevent leakage, and when
deter- mining what type of insulation should be used,
the maximum voltage present must be taken into
account. For this reason, peak values are always
considered when choosing insulation materials.

Fuses are the weak link in a circuit and are used to

break the circuit if excessive current is drawn.
Excessive current could lead to a fire. Fuses rely on
the heating effect of the current, and for this reason,
r.m.s values must always be used when
calculating the appropriate fuse size.