POPULATION ECOLOGY

By C. Kohn, Waterford WI

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Population Ecology is the study of the factors that

affect the population levels, survival, and
reproduction of individual species in a specific area.
A

population is the number of individuals of a species in

one area at one time.

Wildlife management is the application of scientific

knowledge and technical skills to protect, preserve,
conserve, limit, enhance, or extend the value of
wildlife and its habitat
Wildlife

are any non-domesticated vertebrate animals,

including birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians

DETERMINING THE SIZE OF A

POPULATION

Most population sizes are estimates

It

is impossible for ecologists and managers to count

every single species of wildlife.
Most biologists use mathematical formulas to estimate
the size of a population rather than count each
individual.

The Mark-Recapture Method is the most widely

used approach.
Mark-Recapture

involves trapping and marking

individuals of a species.
These individuals are then released and traps are reset.
The proportion of the newly caught individuals is used
to determine the overall size of a population.

EXAMPLE

For example, lets imagine we are counting

pheasant populations in the Waterford area.
We set traps and catch 12 birds, which we then tag.
These birds are released, and several weeks later
we re-set the same traps.
On the second try we catch 12 birds. Of the 12
birds, 4 have been previously tagged.

This

means that for this area, 4 out of 12, or 1/3 are

tagged.
If 1/3 are tagged, and we tagged 12 total, that would
mean that 12 is 1/3 of the total population for this area.
If we multiply 12 times 3, wed get the total estimated
population: 36 pheasants for the Waterford area.

MARK RECAPTURE EQUATION

The Mark-Recapture Equation:

If

N = the total population of individuals of a species in a

given area, then
N = [1st catch] x [2nd catch] /[number caught twice]

For

example, in our pheasant example

We caught 12 the first time.

We caught 12 the second time.
We re-caught 4 the second time.
N = (12 x 12) / 4
N = 144/4 = 36
N = 36

FECUNDITY & FERTILITY

In Population Ecology, two terms serve as a basis

for the ability to maintain a population of a species.
Fecundity the maximum reproductive ability of a
breeding female of a species
E.g.

whitetail deer can have 2-3 fawns per year max

Human females have had over 40 children

Fertility the actual reproductive performance of a

breeding female of a species
E.g.

most whitetail does have 1 fawn per year

Most human females have 1-2 children if they have any

FACTORS THAT NATURALLY LIMIT

POPULATION GROWTH
In

nature, no species ever reaches its full

reproductive potential (fecundity)
This

is because of natural population limits such as

predation, competition, and disease.

Genes do not code for natural population limits

A

species cannot genetically limit its own population

levels
With unrestricted access to resources, populations
increase without limit.
Factors outside of a species genes must limit the
growth and reproduction of a species population.

CARRYING CAPACITIES

A game manager must also consider what is too many of an

animal for a particular habitat.
Every habitat has a maximum carrying capacity for each
species.
The Carrying Capacity, or K-value, represents the maximum
number of individuals of a species that a habitat can
sustainably maintain.
Note: a Carrying Capacity is not a fixed number it will
change each year based on weather, competition from other
species, and availability of resources.
Most

K-values naturally fluctuate from year and from place to place

depending on the availability of resources.

FECUNDITY & FERTILITY

As species increase their population, their

performance in their habitat can change their
physical attributes.
This

can have a significant impact on game

management practices.

High game densities may at first seem ideal,

especially to hunters. However, dense game
populations can
Reduce

birthrates
Reduce individual size of game
Increase the spread of disease

Source: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/fw353/Estimate.htm

K-VALUES AND SATURATION

POINTS

A species can temporarily surpass its carrying

capacity, but not for a long period of time
If

it does surpass its carrying capacity, its population

will crash if not reduced due to a shortage of
resources.

If a species reaches the K-value for its habitat

(the carrying capacity), this is known as the
Saturation Point.
The

habitat is saturated with individuals of that

species and has as many as it can sustain.
Exceeding the saturation point of a habitat can
quickly drive other species in that habitat to
extinction locally.

WISCONSIN DEER DISPERSION

(DNR.GOV)

Game population estimates may be expressed in

terms of abundance or density.
Abundance

estimates are the total number of

individuals estimated for an entire unit.
Density can be calculated by dividing the abundance
estimate by the area (square miles) within the unit.

Density estimates are useful for comparing

population estimates among deer management
units.
The

amount of game per unit area matters more than

the total amount of game.
For example 40 deer is a lot for one small forest but not a
lot for an entire county!

DISPERSAL PATTERNS OF WILDLIFE

Deer and other game never disperse themselves evenly.

This means that dividing total population of an animal by the total land
area will give you a density that is too low.

3 dispersal patterns include

Clumped: when individuals of a
species are more likely to be
together in groups (most common)

Uniform: when individuals of a

species are more likely to equally
distanced from each other (rare).
Random: when the arrangement
of a species follows no pattern and
is not predictable.

DENSITIES AND CARRY CAPACITIES

Density is more than just deer per area.

The

habitat quality and amount in that area matters as much or more as the
total number of deer in that area.

Deer and other game do not disperse themselves evenly across a county
or deer management unit.
The

level patchiness of their habitat affects the actual density of deer and
other game.
For example, if only 20% of a county is suitable habitat for deer, their density
is 5x greater than the calculated density for an entire county or deer
management area.

This is because 80% of the area would be unusable to them.

This means that even with a relatively low density for the county, if
there is a perceived high population density for the deer it will result
in smaller bucks, lower reproduction, and increased spread of disease.
Deer

densities will always be high if suitable habitat is low.

Why? TPS What impact would this have on hunting?

DISPERSAL PATTERNS

Wildlife rarely have uniform dispersal

Their type of dispersal can create unequal
pressures on the resources of a particular
habitat.
For example, one part of a habitat may be over its
K-value while another part of the same habitat
may be under.
Deer are managed in state units rather than as
an entire state herd for this reason.

He
lik re, th
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to

DEER ABUNDANCE MAPS

H
are ere
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a b a loo this
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DEER DENSITY MAPS

Which area
will have the
bigger bucks?

DEER ABUNDANCE AND DENSITIE

S IN WISCONSIN DEER MANAGEM
ENT
DensityUNITS
estimates for deer management units are based
DNR.GOV
largely on the number of antlered bucks harvested in the unit.

The

resulting density estimates are averages for the entire unit and
may not accurately reflect local deer density.
Density within a unit can vary greatly from habitat to habitat.

There can be considerable local variation in density within

deer management units due to differences in deer habitat
quality and local hunting pressure.
i.e.

a well managed habitat will have a higher density of deer but

can also allow for more reproduction and bigger bucks.
i.e. a habitat with low hunting pressure will have a higher density
but may also have smaller bucks and lower reproduction.

Habitat management is critical for game management!

AGE DISPERSAL PATTERNS

Species can have spatial dispersion

across a habitat (clumped, uniform,
or random)
A species can also have age-dispersal patterns
The

investigation of changes in a species population

due to age is also major a part of population ecology.

This information can then be graphed to create a

survivorship curve.
A

survivorship curve represents the numbers of a

species that are alive at each stage of life.

SURVIVORSHIP CURVES
A survivorship can fall into one of three
categories.
Type I on the survivorship curve starts off
relatively flat and then drops off steeply at
an older age.
Death

rates are relatively low until later in life when old age claims most
individuals.
The death rate for Type I species is highest at old age. These species tend to
produce few young, as they are less likely to die due to good care.

Type II is the intermediate category, with a steady even death rate over
the course of a species expected lifespan.
The

risk of death is fairly consistent over the individuals lifespan

Type III curves drop off steeply immediately, representing high infant
mortality, but then levels off for adults.
This

type of curve is affiliated with species that produce large numbers of young
with the expectation that few of them will make it to maturity.
Fish and frogs lay large numbers of eggs with only a small percentage making it
to adulthood. Plants often tend to be good examples, producing many seeds, few
of which become adults.

SURVIVORSHIP CURVES

REGULATING POPULATIONS
Regulating a species population is incredibly complex because of
the intense interaction of factors.
A game manager must take into account

Resource

Consumption (food, water) & predation

Breeding/nesting (cover)
Habitat suitability (lack of pollution, invasive species, and
fragmentation)
Availability of Mates (e.g. Earn of Buck vs. Earn a Doe)
Emigration and Immigration (individuals leaving, individuals coming)
Carrying Capacity of a Habitat & Patchiness of Habitat
Average age of a species and its survivorship curve
Dispersion of a species and their resources

Bottom line a population is not just a number, but a

collection of highly varying factors and inputs.
TPS how could each of these factors increase and decrease the
population of a species in a particular habitat?