Chapter 12

Lecture
PowerPoint

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12.1: Introduction
General senses
Receptors that are widely distributed throughout
the body
Skin, various organs and joints
Special senses
Specialized receptors confined to structures in the
head
Eyes, ears, nose and mouth

12.2: Receptors, Sensation,

and Perception
Sensory receptors
Specialized cells or multicellular structures that
collect information from the environment
Stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory
fibers to the brain
Sensation
A feeling that occurs when brain becomes aware of
sensory impulse
Perception
A persons view of the stimulus; the way the brain

Pathways From Sensation to Perception

(Example of an Apple)

Receptor Types
Chemoreceptors
Respond to changes in chemical concentrations
Pain receptors (nociceptors)
Respond to tissue damage
Thermoreceptors
Respond to changes in temperature
Mechanoreceptors
Respond to mechanical forces
Photoreceptors
Respond to light

Sensory Impulses
Stimulation of receptor causes local change in its receptor potential
A graded electrical current is generated that reflects intensity of
stimulation
If receptor is part of a neuron, the membrane potential may generate
an action potential
If receptor is not part of a neuron, the receptor potential must be
transferred to a neuron to trigger an action potential
Peripheral nerves transmit impulses to CNS where they are analyzed
and interpreted in the brain
6

Sensory Adaptation
Ability to ignore unimportant stimuli
Involves a decreased response to a particular
stimulus from the receptors (peripheral adaptation) or
along the CNS pathways leading to the cerebral
cortex (central adaptation)
Sensory impulses become less frequent and may
cease
Stronger stimulus is required to trigger impulses
7

12.3: General Senses

Senses associated with skin, muscles, joints and viscera
Three (3) groups:
Exteroceptive senses (exteroceptors)
Senses associated with body surface such as touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain
Visceroceptive senses (interoceptors)
Senses associated with changes in the viscera such as
blood pressure stretching blood vessels and ingestion of
a meal
Proprioceptive senses
Senses associated with changes in muscles and
tendons such as at joints

Touch and Pressure Senses

Free nerve endings
Tactile (Meissners) corpuscles
Common in epithelial
Abundant in hairless portions
tissues
of skin and lips
Simplest receptors
Detect fine touch; distinguish
Sense itching
between two points on the skin
Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles
Common in deeper
subcutaneous tissues, tendons
and ligaments
Detect heavy pressure and
vibrations

Touch and Pressure Receptors

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Free nerve
endings

Section of
skin

Epithelial
cells

Epidermis

(a)

Sensory
nerve fiber
Epithelial
cells

Dermis

Tactile (Meissners)
corpuscle
(touch receptor)

(b)

Sensory nerve
fiber
Lamellated
(Pacinian) corpuscle
(pressure receptor)
Connective tissue
cells
Sensory nerve
fiber

(c)
b, c: Ed Reschke

10

Temperature Senses
Warm receptors
Sensitive to temperatures above 25oC (77o F)
Unresponsive to temperature above 45oC (113oF)
Cold receptors
Sensitive to temperatures between 10oC (50oF) and
20oC (68oF)
Pain receptors
Respond to temperatures below 10oC
Respond to temperatures above 45oC
11

Sense of Pain
Free nerve endings
Widely distributed
Nervous tissue of brain lacks pain receptors
Stimulated by tissue damage, chemical, mechanical
forces, or extremes in temperature
Adapt very little, if at all

12

Visceral Pain
Pain receptors are the only receptors in viscera whose
stimulation produces sensations
Pain receptors respond differently to stimulation
Pain receptors are not well localized
Pain receptors may feel as if coming from some other
part of the body
Known as referred pain

13

Referred Pain
May occur due to sensory impulses from two
regions following a common nerve pathway to brain
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Liver and
gallbladder

Lung and diaphragm

Liver and
gallbladder

Heart
Stomach
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Appendix

Ovary
(female)
Colon
Kidney

Ureter

Urinary bladder

14

Pain Nerve Pathways

Acute pain fibers
A-delta fibers
Thin, myelinated
Conduct impulses
rapidly
Associated with sharp
pain
Well localized

Chronic pain fibers

C fibers
Thin, unmyelinated
Conduct impulses more
slowly
Associated with dull,
aching pain
Difficult to pinpoint

15

Regulation of Pain Impulses

Thalamus
Allows person to be aware of pain
Cerebral cortex
Judges intensity of pain
Locates source of pain
Produces emotional and motor responses to pain
Pain inhibiting substances:
Enkephalins
Serotonin
Endorphins
16

Proprioception
Mechanoreceptors
Send information to spinal cord and CNS about body
position and length, and tension of muscles
Main kinds of proprioceptors:
Pacinian corpuscles in joints
Muscle spindles in skeletal muscles*
Golgi tendon organs in tendons*
*considered to be stretch receptors
17

Stretch Receptors
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Sensory
nerve fiber

Sensory
nerve endings

Golgi tendon organ

Sensory
nerve fiber

Tendon

Intrafusal
fiber
Skeletal muscle
fiber
Muscle spindle

Skeletal muscle fiber

Connective
tissue sheath
(a)

(b)

18
18

Visceral Senses
Receptors in internal organs
Convey information that includes the sense of
fullness after eating a meal as well as the
discomfort of intestinal gas and the pain that signals
a heart attack

19

Summary of Receptors of the

General Senses

20

12.4: Special Senses

Sensory receptors are within large, complex sensory
organs in the head
Smell in olfactory organs
Taste in taste buds
Hearing and equilibrium in ears
Sight in eyes
21

Sense of Smell
Olfactory receptors
Chemoreceptors
Respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids
Olfactory organs
Contain olfactory receptors and supporting epithelial
cells
Cover parts of nasal cavity, superior nasal conchae,
and a portion of the nasal septum

22

Olfactory Receptors
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Nerve fibers within

the olfactory bulb
Olfactory Olfactory
tract
bulb

Cribriform
plate
Olfactory area of
nasal cavity
Superior nasal
concha
Nasal cavity

Cilia

(a)

Olfactory
Columnar
Cribriform
receptor cells epithelial cells plate
(b)

23

Olfactory Nerve Pathways

Once olfactory receptors are stimulated, nerve impulses travel
through
Olfactory nerves
olfactory bulbs
olfactory tracts
limbic system (for emotions) and olfactory cortex (for
interpretation)

24

Olfactory Stimulation
Olfactory organs located high in the nasal cavity above
the usual pathway of inhaled air
Olfactory receptors undergo sensory adaptation
rapidly
Sense of smell drops by 50% within a second after
stimulation

25

Sense of Taste
Taste buds
Organs of taste
Located on papillae of tongue, roof of mouth, linings of
cheeks and walls of pharynx
Taste receptors
Chemoreceptors
Taste cells modified epithelial cells that function as
receptors
Taste hairs microvilli that protrude from taste cells;
sensitive parts of taste cells
26

Taste Receptors
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Papillae

Taste buds

Epithelium
of tongue

(a)

Taste cell
Taste hair
Supporting
cell
Taste
pore

(b)

Connective
tissue
Sensory
nerve fibers

27

Taste Sensations
Four primary taste sensations
Sweet stimulated by carbohydrates
Sour stimulated by acids
Salty stimulated by salts
Bitter stimulated by many organic compounds

28

Taste Nerve Pathways

Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel along:
Cranial nerves to
Medulla oblongata to
Thalamus to
Gustatory cortex (for interpretation)

29

Sense of Hearing
Ear
Organ of hearing
Three (3) sections:
External ear
Middle ear
Inner ear

30

External Ear
Auricle
Collects sounds waves
External auditory meatus
Lined with ceruminous
glands
Carries sound to
tympanic membrane
Terminates with
tympanic membrane
Tympanic membrane
Vibrates in response to
sound waves

Auricle

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Semicircular
canals
Incus

Stapes

Malleus

Cochlea
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Oval window (under stapes)
Round window
Tympanic cavity

Tympanic
membrane

External acoustic
meatus

Auditory tube

Pharynx

31

Middle Ear
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Tympanic cavity

Auricle

Air-filled space in
temporal bone
Auditory ossicles
Vibrate in response to
tympanic membrane
Malleus, incus and stapes
Hammer, anvil and stirrup
Oval window
Opening in wall of tympanic
cavity
Stapes vibrates against it to
move fluids in inner ear

Semicircular
canals
Incus

Stapes

Malleus

Cochlea
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Oval window (under stapes)
Round window
Tympanic cavity

Tympanic
membrane

External acoustic
meatus

Auditory tube

Pharynx

32

Auditory Tube
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Also known as the

Eustachian tube
Connects middle ear to
throat
Helps maintain equal
pressure on both sides of
tympanic membrane
Usually closed by valvelike flaps in throat

Auricle

Semicircular
canals
Incus

Stapes

Malleus

Cochlea
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Oval window (under stapes)
Round window
Tympanic cavity

Tympanic
membrane

External acoustic
meatus

Auditory tube

Pharynx

33

Inner Ear
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Complex system of labyrinths

Osseous labyrinth
Bony canal in temporal
bone
Filled with perilymph
Membranous labyrinth
Tube within osseous
labyrinth
Filled with endolymph

Bony labyrinth
Perilymph
Membranous
labyrinth
Endolymph
Bony labyrinth
(contains perilymph)
Membranous labyrinth
(contains endolymph)
Semicircular
canals
Utricle
Saccule

Vestibular nerve
Cochlear nerve
Scala
vestibuli (cut)
Scala
tympani (cut)
Cochlear
duct (cut)
containing
endolymph

Ampullae Oval Vestibule Round Maculae

window
window
(a)

Cochlea

34

Inner Ear
Three (3) parts of labyrinths:
Cochlea
Functions in hearing
Semicircular canals
Functions in equilibrium
Vestibule
Functions in equilibrium

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Bony labyrinth
Perilymph
Membranous
labyrinth
Endolymph
Bony labyrinth
(contains perilymph)
Membranous labyrinth
(contains endolymph)
Semicircular
canals
Utricle
Saccule

Vestibular nerve
Cochlear nerve
Scala
vestibuli (cut)
Scala
tympani (cut)
Cochlear
duct (cut)
containing
endolymph

Ampullae Oval Vestibule Round Maculae

window
window
(a)

Cochlea

35

Cochlea
Scala vestibuli
Upper compartment
Leads from oval window
to apex of spiral
Part of bony labyrinth
Scala tympani
Lower compartment
Extends from apex of
the cochlea to round
window
Part of bony labyrinth

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Stapes vibrating in
oval window

Helicotrema

Scala vestibuli
filled with perilymph
Vestibular
membrane

Basilar
membrane
Scala tympani
filled with
perilymph
Round window

Membranous
labyrinth

Cochlear duct
filled with endolymph

36

Cochlea
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Cochlear duct
Portion of membranous
labyrinth in cochlea
Vestibular membrane
Separates cochlear
duct from scala vestibuli
Basilar membrane
Separates cochlear
duct from scala tympani

Scala vestibuli
(contains perilymph)
Vestibular membrane

Branch of
cochlear
nerve

Cochlear duct
(contains endolymph)
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)
Basilar membrane
Scala tympani
(contains perilymph)

(a)

37

Animation:
Effect of Sound Waves
on Cochlear Structures
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38

Organ of Corti
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Group of hearing receptor cells

(hair cells)
On upper surface of basilar
membrane
Different frequencies of vibration
move different parts of basilar
membrane
Particular sound frequencies
cause hairs of receptor cells to
bend
Nerve impulse generated

Scala vestibuli
(contains perilymph)
Vestibular membrane
Cochlear duct
(contains endolymph)
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)

Branch of
cochlear
nerve

Basilar membrane
Scala tympani
(contains perilymph)

(a)
Tectorial
membrane
Hair cells

39
(b)

Branch of
cochlear nerve

Nerve
fibers

Supporting
cells

Basilar
membrane

Organ of Corti
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Cochlear duct
Tectorial membrane

Scala tympani

Hair cells

Basilar
membrane

(a)

(b)
a: John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited

40

Auditory Nerve Pathways

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Auditory cortex
(temporal lobe)
Thalamus
Medial geniculate
body of thalamus
Midbrain

Pons

Cochlear
nuclei
Superior
olivary
nucleus
Medulla
oblongata

Vestibulocochlear
nerve

41

Summary of the Generation of

Sensory Impulses from the Ear

42

Sense of Equilibrium
Static equilibrium
Vestibule
Senses position of
head when body is
not moving

Dynamic Equilibrium
Semicircular canals
Senses rotation and
movement of head and
body

43

Vestibule
Utricle
Communicates with saccule
and membranous portion of
semicircular canals
Saccule
Communicates with cochlear
duct
Macula
Hair cells of utricle and
saccule

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Ampullae of
semicircular
canals

Vestibulocochlear
nerve

Cochlea

Utricle

Cochlear
duct

Maculae Saccule Vestibule

44

Macula
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Responds to
changes in head
position
Bending of hairs
results in generation
of nerve impulse

Hairs of
hair cells bend
Gelatinous
material sags

Otoliths
Macula
of utricle

Hair cells
Sensory nerve fiber

Gravitational
force

Supporting cells

45
(a) Head upright

(b) Head bent forward

Semicircular Canals
Three (3) canals at right angles
Ampulla
Swelling of membranous
labyrinth that communicates
Ampullae of
semicircular
with the vestibule
canals
Crista ampullaris
Sensory organ of ampulla
Hair cells and supporting
cells
Rapid turns of head or
body stimulate hair cells

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Vestibulocochlear
nerve
Utricle

Cochlea
Cochlear
duct

Maculae Saccule Vestibule

46

Crista Ampullaris
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Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Endolymph
Semicircular canal
Cupula

Crista
ampullaris

(a) Head in still position

Ampulla
Crista ampullaris

Hairs
Hair cell
Supporting cells
Sensory nerve fibers

(b) Head rotating

(c)

47

Sense of Sight
Visual accessory organs
Eyelids
Lacrimal apparatus
Extrinsic eye muscles

48

Eyelid
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Palpebra
Composed of four (4) layers:
Skin
Muscle
Connective tissue
Conjunctiva
Orbicularis oculi closes
eyelid
Levator palpebrae superioris
opens eyelid
Tarsal glands secrete oil
onto eyelashes
Conjunctiva mucous
membrane; lines eyelid and
covers portion of eyeball

Tendon of levator
palpebrae superioris

Superior
rectus

Orbicularis
oculi
Eyelid

Tarsal glands
Eyelash

Cornea

Inferior
rectus

Conjunctiva

49

Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal gland
Lateral to eye
Secretes tears
Canaliculi
Collect tears
Lacrimal sac
Collects from canaliculi
Nasolacrimal duct
Collects from lacrimal sac
Empties tears into nasal
cavity

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Lacrimal gland
Superior and
inferior canaliculi
Lacrimal sac

Nasolacrimal
duct

50

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Superior rectus
Rotates eye up and
medially

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Medial Superior
rectus rectus

Superior
oblique

Inferior rectus
Rotates eye down
and medially
Medial rectus
Rotates eye
medially

Lateral
rectus
(cut)

Inferior rectus

Inferior oblique

51

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Lateral rectus
Rotates eye
laterally

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Medial Superior
rectus rectus

Superior
oblique

Superior oblique
Rotates eye down
and laterally
Inferior oblique
Rotates eye up and
laterally

Lateral
rectus
(cut)

Inferior rectus

Inferior oblique

52

Structure of the Eye

Wall has three (3) layers:
Outer fibrous tunic
Middle vascular tunic
Inner nervous tunic

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Lateral rectus
Retina
Ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments

Choroid coat
Sclera
Vitreous humor

Iris
Lens
Fovea centralis

Pupil
Cornea
Aqueous
humor

Anterior
cavity

Anterior
chamber
Posterior
chamber

Optic nerve
Optic disc
Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

53

Outer Tunic
Cornea
Anterior portion
Transparent
Light transmission
Light refraction

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Lateral rectus
Retina
Ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments

Vitreous humor

Iris
Lens
Fovea centralis

Pupil

Sclera
Posterior portion
Opaque
Protection

Choroid coat
Sclera

Cornea
Aqueous
humor

Anterior
cavity

Anterior
chamber
Posterior
chamber

Optic nerve
Optic disc
Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

54

Middle Tunic
Iris
Anterior portion
Pigmented
Controls light intensity

Ciliary body
Anterior portion
Pigmented
Holds lens
Moves lens for focusing

Choroid coat

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Lateral rectus
Retina
Ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments

Choroid coat
Sclera
Vitreous humor

Iris
Lens
Fovea centralis

Pupil
Cornea
Aqueous
humor

Anterior
cavity

Provides blood supply

Pigments absorb extra light

Anterior
chamber
Posterior
chamber

Optic nerve
Optic disc
Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

55

Anterior Portion of Eye

Filled with aqueous humor
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Cornea

Anterior chamber

Iris
Posterior
chamber
Ciliary process

Suspensory
ligaments

Ciliary muscles

Ciliary
body

Conjunctiva
Vitreous
humor

Lens

Sclera

56

Lens
Transparent
Biconvex
Lies behind iris
Largely composed
of lens fibers
Elastic
Held in place by
suspensory ligaments
of ciliary body

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Cornea

Anterior chamber

Iris
Posterior
chamber
Ciliary process

Suspensory
ligaments

Ciliary muscles

Ciliary
body

Conjunctiva
Vitreous
humor

Lens

Sclera

57

Ciliary Body
Forms internal ring around the front of the eye
Ciliary processes radiating folds
Ciliary muscles contract and relax to move lens
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Ciliary processes
of ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments
Lens
Retina
Choroid coat
Sclera

58

Accommodation
Changing of lens shape to view objects

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Ciliary muscle
fibers contracted
Suspensory
ligaments relaxed
Lens thick

(a)

Ciliary muscle
fibers relaxed
Suspensory
ligaments taut
Lens thin

59
(b)

Iris
Composed of
connective tissue and
smooth muscle
Pupil is hole in iris
Dim light stimulates
radial muscles and pupil
dilates
Bright light stimulates
circular muscles and
pupil constricts

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Sympathetic
motor nerve
fiber

In dim light
Radially arranged
Smooth muscle fibers
of the iris

Parasympathetic
ganglion

Circularly arranged
smooth muscle fibers
of the iris
Pupil

In normal light

Parasympathetic
motor nerve fiber

In bright light

60

Aqueous Humor
Fluid in anterior cavity of eye
Secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary body
Provides nutrients
Maintains shape of anterior portion of eye
Leaves cavity through Canal of Schlemm
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Cornea

Aqueous humor
Anterior
chamber

Iris
Scleral venous sinus
(canal of Schlemm)

Lens
Sclera
Ciliary
body

Ciliary process
Ciliary muscles

Vitreous humor
Posterior
chamber

61

Inner Tunic
Retina
Contains visual receptors
Continuous with optic nerve
Ends just behind margin of the ciliary body
Composed of several layers
Macula lutea yellowish spot in retina
Fovea centralis center of macula lutea; produces
sharpest vision
Optic disc blind spot; contains no visual receptors
Vitreous humor thick gel that holds retina flat
against choroid coat
62

Posterior Cavity
Contains vitreous humor thick gel that holds retina
flat against choroid coat
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Lateral rectus
Retina
Ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments

Choroid coat
Sclera
Vitreous humor

Iris
Lens
Fovea centralis

Pupil
Cornea
Aqueous
humor

Anterior
cavity

Anterior
chamber
Posterior
chamber

Optic nerve
Optic disc
Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

63

Major Groups of Retinal Neurons

Receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells - provide pathway for
impulses triggered by photoreceptors to reach the optic nerve
Horizontal cells and amacrine cells modify impulses
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Sclera
Pigmented
choroid
coat

Retinal pigment
epithelium
Rod
Cone

Receptor cells

Horizontal cell

Retina

Bipolar neuron
Amacrine cell
Ganglion cell

Layer of
connecting
neurons

Nerve fibers
Impulses
to optic
nerve

Vitreous humor

Light waves

64

Layers of the Eye

65

Light Refraction
Refraction
Bending of light
Occurs when light waves pass at an oblique angle
into mediums of different densities
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Perpendicular line
Air
Light wave

Glass

Refracted
light wave

66

Types of Lenses
Convex lenses cause
light waves to converge

Concave lenses cause

light waves to diverge

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Light
wave
Air
Convex
surface

Concave
surface

Glass

Converging
light waves
(a)

Diverging
light waves
(b)

67

Focusing On Retina
As light enters eye, it is refracted by:
Convex surface of cornea
Convex surface of lens
Image focused on retina is upside down and reversed
from left to right
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Light waves

Image
Retina
Object

Cornea
68

Visual Receptors
Rods
Cones
Long, thin projections
Short, blunt projections
Contain light sensitive
Contain light sensitive
pigment called rhodopsin
pigments called
Hundred times more
erythrolabe, chlorolabe,
sensitive to light than cones
and cyanolabe
Provide vision in dim light
Provide vision in bright
Produce colorless vision
light
Produce outlines of objects Produce sharp images
Produce color vision
69

Rods and Cones

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Retinal pigment
epithelium

Cones

Rods

Single sensory
nerve fiber
(a)

Many sensory
nerve fibers
(b)

Rod

Cone

70
(c)
c: Frank S. Werblin, PhD.

12.6 Clinical Application

Refraction Disorders
Concave lens corrects
nearsightedness

Convex lens corrects

farsightedness

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Lens

Point
of focus

Uncorrected
point of focus

Cornea
Light waves
Light waves

(a) Eye too long (myopia)

Point
of focus

Concave lens
(a)

Corrected
point of focus

Light waves

Retina

Uncorrected
point of focus

(b) Normal eye

Point
of focus
Light waves

Convex lens
(c) Eye too short (hyperopia)

(b)

71
Corrected
point of focus

Visual Pigments
Rhodopsin
Pigments on cones
Light-sensitive pigment in rods
Each set contains different
Decomposes in presence of
light-sensitive pigment
Each set is sensitive to
light
Triggers a complex series of
different wavelengths
Color perceived depends on
reactions that initiate nerve
which sets of cones are
impulses
Impulses travel along optic
stimulated
Erythrolabe responds to red
nerve
Chlorolabe responds to
green
Cyanolabe responds to blue
72

Rod Cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Discs of
membrane
within cell

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Synaptic
ending
Rod cell

73

Stereoscopic Vision
Provides perception of distance and depth
Results from formation of two slightly different retinal
images
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Light
waves

Left eye

Right eye

74

Visual Nerve Pathway

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Eye
Optic
nerve

Fibers from
nasal (medial) half
of each retina
crossing over

Optic
chiasma

Optic tract

Lateral
geniculate
body of
thalamus

Optic
radiations

75
Visual cortex of
occipital lobe

12.5: Lifespan Changes

Age related hearing loss due to:
Damage of hair cells in organ of Corti
Degeneration of nerve pathways to the brain
Tinnitus
Age-related visual problems include:
Dry eyes
Floaters (crystals in vitreous humor)
Loss of elasticity of lens
Glaucoma
Cataracts
Macular degeneration
76