Subject Code 6145

Applied Math -III

Common to Trades
:-Electronics & comm Engg ,
Computer engg ,
instrumentation Technology
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DIPLOMA IN ELECTONICS &

COMMUNICATION ENGG.
SEMESTER--- THIRD
YEAR----- 1999-2000
SUBJECT--APP. MATHEMATICS
COURSE CODE----61
SUBJECT CODE----6145
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TOTAL NO. OF SLIDES---

866

TOTAL NO. OF LECTURES---40

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DETAIL OF TEACHING SCHEME

Total no. Of lectures---- 4 hrs/week
Total no. of tutorials---- nil

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EVALUATION SCHEME
TOTAL MARKS : 125
INTERNAL ASSESMENT:
Total No. =

25

Home work No.

Test No. =

= 10
15

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Duration of Exams. :- 3 hours each

for theory
Style of Exams. :- Multiple choice
question
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TEACHING & EXAMINATION

CALENDER
Teaching :- Feb to April
Examination:- May
Year :-

2000
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BOOKS & REFRENCES

1. A Text Book of App. Mathematics
Writer:- S.S. Sabharwal & others.
Publishers:- Eagle Prakashan.
(Jalandhar)
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DETERMINANT
&
MATRICES
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Determinant
Minor : Minor of an element is the
determinant obtained by deleting
the row and column containing that
elements from the given
determinant.

1
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Find the Minor of all the elements

in the first row of the determinant.

-2 7

6 -8 5
Solution:- Elements in the first row
are 3, 4 &7
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Minor of 3

is =

Minor of 4 is =

-8

-2

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= 59

= -28
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Minor of 7 is =

-2

-8

= - 26

1
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Determinant
Co-factor : The minor of the element
preceded by a positive or negative sign
is called co-factor of that element.
Co-factor of aij=(-1)^I+j*mij
mij is the minor of element aij
1
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Find the co-factor of the element -5

in the determinant .
8 9 10
6

-7

-8

4 -5 -7
Sol.---Co-factor of the element is a minor
of the element with the proper sign.
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Co-factor of -5
= (-1)no of row +no of column . Minor
=(-1) 3+2
= - [ -96 ]

10

-7
= 96

1
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Determinant
It is important to note that the
numerical value of the minor and the
co-factor is same but the sign differs
according to the value of I+j being
even or odd respectively

1
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Determinant
Degree of determinant
The degree of determinant is decided
by the degree of expression obtained
by multiplying by elements of the
main diagonal.
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PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT

(1) The value of the determinant is not

changed when the rows and columns are
interchanged.
=
1
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2. If two rows ( or column ) of a

determinant are interchanged the
value of the determinant is
multiplied by -1.
=1
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3. If any two rows or

columns of a determinant are
same or proportional, the
value of the determinant is
zero.

1
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4. If all the elements in any line

are multiplied by any factor
then the determinant is
multiplied by the factor.

1
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5. If each element of any line of a

determinant consist of the
algebraic sum of n terms the
determinant can be written as the
algebraic sum of n determinant.
1
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6. If one rows or one column of

the determinant is zero then the
value of the determinant is zero.

1
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Laplace expansion
1. Take the elements of any
row (or column ) and find
their cofactors.
2. Multiply each element by
its cofactor.
1
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3. Add the products

The sum of these products
gives the expansion of the
determinant

1
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Expand the determinant by

Laplace method
3

-1 4

-3

-5

=(-1)4+19 4

-3 +

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(-1)4+21 -1 7
2

-3 +(-1)4+37 -1 4

-3

1
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+(-1)4+4 (-5) -1 4
2

7 =-9 4
3
0
1

1
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+ -1 7
2

-3 -7 -1

1
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-3 -5 -1 4

4
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3
2

1
22
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Now 4 7 -3
1 0 4
= 5(28-0)-6(16+3)+2(-7)
= 140-114-14=12
1
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Similarly
3 6 2
-1 7 -3 = 3(28)-6(-4+6)+2(0-14)
2 0 4 = 44

3 5 6
-1 4 7 = 3(0-7) -5(0-14) +6( -9)
2 1 0 = -5
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 D = -9(12) +44-(7)(29)-5(-5)
= -242

1
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Matrices
Matrix Definition: It refers to a
rectangular array of mn numbers(real
or complex) arranged in m horizontal
lines and n vertical lines subjected to
certain rules of representation.

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Matrices
Symbol matrix of type m*n
a11

a12

a13 a1n

a21

a22

a23 a2n

..
.
Am1

am2 am3..amn
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Matrices
Elements : Each of the mn numbers
is called an element or entry. They
are accompanied by two indices the
first of which indicates the row and
the second indicates the column.

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Matrices :
Notations: Matrices are denoted by
*a capital letter of the alphabet viz ,
A,B,C..X,Y,Z
** a single typical elements within the
square brackets.
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Matrices
Rows and Columns : The horizontal
lines are called rows and are
numbered from top to bottom . The
vertical lines are columns and are
numbered from left to right.

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Matrices
Symbols : the following symbols
may be used to enclose the elements
constituting matrix
[ ],{},( ),|| ||. We prefer the first
symbol .
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Matrices Types
Matrix

RECTANGULAR SQUARE
ROW &
MATRIX
MATRIX
COLUMN
MATRIX
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DIGIONAL
MATRIX
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Matrices Types

SCALER
MATRIX

IDENTITY
MATRIX

NULL
MATRIX
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TRIANGULAR
MATRIX
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Matrices
Rectangular Matrix: any matrix of the
type m*n where m is not equal to n
is called rectangular matrix.e.g.
matrix of the type 2 6 1
4

-1 0

is rectangular matrix
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Matrices
Square matrix:
any matrix of

-3

the type m*n

-4

,m=n is called

-3

square matrix.
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Matrices
Row matrix: Any matrix 1*n of the
type i.e. having a single row is called
row matrix. e.g. here we have matrix
of the type 1*5 .
1

9 -4

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Matrices
Column Matrix:Any matrix of the
type m*1 i.e. having single column
is called a column matrix. 4
Here we have matrix

of the type 4*1.

5
2

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Matrices
Diagonal Matrix:

Any matrix in which

all the elements except 0

on principal diagonal
are zero.
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Matrices
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in
which all the diagonal elements are
equal (other than one ) 2 0 0
is called scalar matrix. 0 2 0
0 0
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Matrices
Identity Matrix: A diagonal matrix in
which each element of principle
diagonal is unity is called identity
matrix.
1 0 0

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Matrix:
Null or Zero matrix:Any matrix in
which all the elements are zero is
called null or zero matrix.
Notation :-O

null matrix of

3*3 type

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Matrices
Triangular Matrix

s
UPPER TRIANGULAR
MATRIX
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LOWER TRIANGULAR
MATRIX

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Matrices
Upper triangular
matrix
.aij=0
for i>j
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0 g

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Matrices
Lower triangular matrix
aij=0
for i<j

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Matrices
Equal Matrices:
same order
same corresponding elements
Thus aij=bij for all i and j
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MATRICES
Addition of Matrices
a1

b1

a2

b2

a1+c1

c1

d1

c2

d2

b1+d1

a2+c2AM 6145b2+d2
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MATRICES
Subtraction of Matrices:--a1

b1

a2

b2

c1

d1

c2

d2

a1-c1

b1-d1

a2-c2

b2-d2

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10
If A= 3
12

-9

C= 4

B= -7

-8

Find A+B+C & A-B-C

10
5
-9
SOL. -A+B+C= 3 + -7 + 4
12
9
-8
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6
10+5-9
A+B+C = 3-7+4 = 0
13
12+9-8

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A-B-C =

10-5+9
3+7-4
12-9+8

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14
= 6
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MATRICES
Condition of Multiplication:--

column of first matrix

equal to
row of second matrix
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MATRICES
Product of Matrices
A= [aij]m*n

B = [bjk]n*p

A*B = [cik]m*p
cik = aij.bjk
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0
IF A= 1
2

1
2
3

Find AB
0
Sol.--- AB= 1
2

2
1
3 B= 0
4
1

0
2
2

2
2
0

1
0
1

0
2
2

2
2
0

1
2
3

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AB=
0.1+1.0+2.1 0.0+1.2+2.2 0.2+1.2+2.0
1.1+2.0+3.1 1.0+2.2+3.2 1.2+2.2+3.0
2.1+3.0+4.1 2.0+3.2+4.2 2.2+3.2+4.0
2
AB = 5
6

6 2
10 6
14 10
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A has x rows x+5 columns , B has y

rows and 11-y columns . Both AB &
BA exist . Find x & y
Sol. --AB is defined
No. of columns of A = no. of rows of B
x+5=y
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BA is defined
no. of columns of B =no. of rows of A
11-y = x
From (1) & (2)
We get x = 3 , y = 8
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MATRICES
Transpose of matrix:-The matrix obtained by
interchanging rows & columns.

Symbol
(A)/ =Transpose matrix
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MATRICES
Important result of (/)
(A ) =A
/ /

(A+B) = A +B
/

( kA) = kA
/

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MATRICES
Singular Matrix:--|A|=0

Non-Singular Matrix:--|A|=0
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Show that the Matrix

Sol.

13 16 19
A = 14 17 20
15 18 21
| A| =

is singular

13 16 19
14 17 20
15 18 21

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Operating C2 - C1, C3 - C2
13 3
14 3
15 3

3
3
3

=0

Hence the given matrix is singular

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MATRICES
Cofactor matrix:-[ai]=
[Ai]=

a1

a2
ai,s=ele.

a3

a4

A1

A2

A3

Ai,=Cofac
A4 .-tors

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MATRICES
Adjoint of matrix:- (Def.)
The transpose of
cofactor matrix of given matrix.
Symbol
adj.A
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MATRICES
Adjoint of matrix:--Properties:
A(adj.A) = (adj.A)A = |A|I.

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Find the Adjoint of the matrix

1 -2 4
A= 0 2 1
-4 5 2
Sol.-1 -2 4 Co-factor of 1st row
|A| = 0 2 1 are 1 , -4 , 8
-4 5 2
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Co-factor of 2nd row are 26 ,19 ,-3

Co-factor of 3rd row are -10 ,-1 ,2

Co-factor matrix =
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1 -4 8
26 19 -1
-10 -1 2
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 adj. A=

1 -4 8
26 19 -1
-10 -1 2

1 26 -10
= -4 19 -1
8 -1 2
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MATRICES
Inverse Matrix:(Def)
For any matrix A there
exist matrix B such that
AB=BA=I
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MATRICES
Inverse Matrix:--Symbol:-A

-1

Property:-AA = A A =I
-1

-1

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MATRICES
Method for inverse
Evaluate |A| if |A| =0;

A-1 exists.

Find adj.A
A-1 = adj.A/ |A|
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Find the inverse of the Matrix:1 -2 4

0 2 1
-4 5 3

1 -2 4
Sol. : | A | = 0 2 1
-4 5 3
= 1(6-5) + 2(+4) + 4(+8)
= 1 + 8 + 32 = 41
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Co-factor of the element of 1 row

of | A | are
0 1
2 1
= -4 ;
=1; (-1)
-4 3
5 3
st

-4 5

=8

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Co-factor of the elements of 2nd row

of | A | are
-

-2 4
5

=26 ;

-4 3

= 19

1 -2
- -4 5 = -3
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Co-factor of the elements of 3rd

-2 4
row of | A| are
= -10 ;
2 1
1 4
1 -2
=-1 ;
=2
0 1
0 2
Co-factor matrix 1 -4 8
26 19 -3
-10 -1 2
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 adj. A = Transpose of co-factor

Matrix
1 26
-10
-4 19 -1
8 -3 2
1 26 -10
1
Adj.
A
-4 19 -1
=
A-1 =
| A|
41 8 -3 2
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Rule of sarrus for evaluation

of 3rd order determinant
Write down the three columns
of the given determinant and
repeat the first two columns
as below
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+ + +- - a b c a b
d

D =aef+bfg +cdh - ceg - afh - bdf

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Solve by sarrus method the determinant

Sol.

-4

-1

-2

By the rule of sarrus

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+
3

+
2

+-4

-1

-2

-2

=21+4-120 -8+18-70
= 43-198 = -155
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Prove with out expanding the value of

=0
2 1
1 2
2
1
Sol .

Operate C1+C2 +C3

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1++
1++

1++
(1+w+w2=0)

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= 0
0
OF

w 1
w w =0
1

w
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a2+1

ab

ac

ad

ab

b2+1

bc

bd

ac

bc

c2+1

cd

ad

bd

cd

d2+1

SOL. Taking a, b, c, d common

from R1, R2, R3 & R4 respectively
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a+1/a
=abcd

b+1/b

c+1/c

c d+1/d

Multiply C1, C2, C3 & C4 By a, b, c

& d and dividing by a, b, c & d
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a2+1
=abcd/abcd

b2

c2

d2

a2

b2+1

c2

d2

a2

d2

a2

b2
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c2+1 d2
c2
OF

d2+1
9
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1
=(1+a2+b2+c2+d2)

b2

c2

d2

b2+1 c2

d2

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c +1 d
2

d +1

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MATRIX
METHOD
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Let the linear =n in x ,y ,z be

ax+by+cz=p
gx+hy+fz=q
wx+vy+tz=r
Rewrite the given =n in the matrix form
p
a b c
x
g h f
y = q
r
w v t
z
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x
X= y
z

a b c
Let A= g h f
w v t
p
B= q
Then AX=B
r

X= A B
-1

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Solve the following =n by

Matrix method
x+y+z=3
x+2y+3z=4
x+4y+9z=6
Sol. -- Rewriting the given =n in matrix
1 1 1 x
3
1 2 3 y = 4
1 4 9 z
6
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1
A= 1
1

AX=B
x
1 1
3
2 3 X= y B= 4
z
4 9
6

X=A B
6 -5 1
Adj. (A)= -6 8 -2
2 -3 1
-1

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1 1 1
|A| = 1 2 3
1 4 9
=1(18-12)-1(9-3)+1(4-2)
=2
6 -5 1
Adj. A
-1
A =
=1/2 -6 8 -2
|
2 -3 1
A|
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6 -5 1
x
y = 1/2 -6 8 -2
2 -3 1
z

3
4
6

2
18-20+6
=
1
= 1/2 -18+32-12
0
6-12+6
x=2 ,y=1 ,z=0
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Solve by the left of matrix

method
6x + 4y = 2
9x + 6y = 3
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Re-writing the given equation

in the matrix form:6

9 6
AX = B
x
X= y

y
A=
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3
6

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2
B=
3

| A| =

9 6
= 36 - 36 = 0
the given equation have infinite
solution
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Solve the matrix

3x + 2y = 7
11x - 4y = 3
rewriting the given equation in the
matrix form :AM 6145 L4
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11 -4

7
3

AX=B
A=

11 -4

X=

x
B=

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| A| =

11 -4
= -12 - 22 = -34

Cofactor of first row = -4, -11

Cofactor of second row =-2, 3
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Adjoint A =

-4 -2
-11 3

-4
-2
Adjoint
A
-1
-1
A =
=
| A|
34 -11 3
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x
y

1 34
=
34 68

-4
-2
-1
=
34 -11 3

7
3

x = 1 & y = 2
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AM 6145 L5
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CRAMER RULE
Let three =ns in three variable x,y,z be
ax+by+cz=d
ex+fy+gz=h
px+qy+rz=s
a b c
d b c
D
=
e
f
g
h f g
1
D=
p q r
s q r
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a
D2 = e
p

d
h
s

c
g
r

a
D3 = e
p

b
f
q

d
h
s

Then x= D1 / D , y= D2 / D , z=D3 / D
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Solve by cramer rule the =ns

7x-12y+5z=-18
3x+8y-2z =40
10x-7y+4z=11
Sol.-Here D=

7 -12 5
3
8 -2
10 -7 4

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

=5
4
OF
25

-18 -12 5
D 1=

40

8 -2

11 -7

D2 =

=20

-18 5

40 -2

10 11 4

=15

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

5
OF
25

D3 =

7 -12
3
8
10 -7

-18
40
11

= -10

Then x= D1 / D , y= D2 / D , z=D3 / D
x = 20/5 = 4 , y = 15/5 = 3
z = -10/5 = -2
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

6
OF
25

Some results:-(1) the equations have a unique solution

D=0
(2) The equation have an infinite
number of solutions if
D1 = D 2 = D 3 = D = 0
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

7
OF
25

The equation dont have solution

if D = 0 and any of D1, D2& D3 is
not zero

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

8
OF
25

Obtained non trivial solution if it

exist x + y - 3z = 0
3x - y - z = 0
2x + y - 4z = 0
Sol.
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

9
OF
25

Here D =

1
3
2

1 -3
-1 -1
1 -4

= (4 + 1) - (-12+2) - 3 ( 3 + 2)
=0
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

10
OF
25

The system have non-trivial

solution
solving first two equations
x + y - 3z = 0
3x - y - z = 0
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

11
OF
25

x
y
=
-1 - 3
-9 + 1

z
=
=k
-1 - 3

x = k, y = 2k, z = k
By giving different values of k
we get infinite number of non-trivial
solution.
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

12
OF
25

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

13
OF
25

2X1 + Xequation
XMatrix
2 + 2X3 +in
4 = 6
Express
form
and
solve
them
by
elimination
6X1 - 6X2 + 6X3 + 12X4 = 36
method due to Gauss
4X1 + 3X2 + 3X3 - 3X4 = -1 and
2X1 + 2X2 - X3 + X4 = 10

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

14
OF
25

SOLUTION:2

X1

-6

6 12

X2

36

3 -3

X3

-1

-1

X4

10

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

R2-3R1
R3-2R1
R4-R1
15
OF
25

X1

-9

X2

18

-1 -5

X3

-13

-3

X4

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

-R2/9

16
OF
25

X1

0 -1

X2

-1 -5

X3

-3

6
18 R -R
3
2
=
-13 R -R
4

X4

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

17
OF
25

X1

0 -1

X2

-2

-1 -4

X3

-11

-3

X4

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

R4-3R3

18
OF
25

X1

0 -1

X2

-2

-1 -4

X3

-11

0 13 X
4

39

AM 6145 L5
40

OF

19
OF
25

 2X1 + X2 + 2X3 + X4 = 6 --- (1)

X2 - X4 = -2 ----- (2)
-X3 -4X4 = -11 ---- (3)
13X4 = 39 ----(4)
X4 = 3
X3 = -1, X2= 1 , X1= 2
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

20
OF
25

COMPLEX
ALGEBRA
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

21
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
NO
Addition:--To add two or more
complexnos. add their real parts
&imaginary parts separately and
join by i
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

22
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Definition:--Combination of real numbers
&imaginary numbers
Symbol:---

Z =a+ib
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

23
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Geometric Representation(Add.)
Y
C

B
A

Z2

Z1
o

E
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

x
24
OF
25

COMPLEX NO
Subtraction:-To subtract two complex nos.
Subtract their real &imaginary parts
separately and join by i.
AM 6145 L5
40

OF

25
OF
25

COMPLEX NO
Geometrical Representation(SUB.)
A
Z2
o
-Z2

z1-z2

Z1 C
L

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

1
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Multiplication:--z1z2 = ac-bd + i(bc+ad)
z1 = a+ib
z2 = c+id ,be any two complex
numbers.
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

2
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Geometrical representation(mul.)
p
Q
B

A
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

3
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Division:--Z1/Z2 = a+ib/c+id
= ac+bd/c2+d2 +i(bc-ad)/c2+d2
For numerical problems multiply
&divide by conjugate of denominator.
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

4
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Geometrical representation(div.)
p
Q
B

AM 6145 L
40

OF

5
OF
25

COMPLEX NO
Addition (Application) :--(2+i3)+(3-i5) =(2+3)+i(3-5)
=5-i2

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

6
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Addition (Application):--(5+i3)+(3+i4)=(5+3)+i(3+4)
=8+i7

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

7
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Sub.(Application):--(2+3i)-(3-6i)=(2-3)+i(3+6)
= -1+i9

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

8
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Sub.(Application):--(50-i50)-(100-i50)
=(50-100)+i(-50+50)
=-50

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

9
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Multiplication(Application):--(9-i6) (9+i6)=81-i236
=81+36 [i2=-1]
=117
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

10
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Multiplication(Application):--(3-i4) (2+i5)=6-i220+i15-i8
=6+20+i(15-8)
=26+i7

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

11
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Division(Application):--5+i7/9-i3=(5+i7/9-i3) (9+i3/9+i3)
=[45-21+i(63+15)]/(92-i29)
=(24+i78)/81+9
=(24+i78)/90
=24/90+i78/90
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

12
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Division(Application):--5-i/3-i4=(5-i/3-i4)(3+4i/3+4i)
=(15-4i2+20i-3i)/81-16i2
=(15+4+17i)/81+16
=(19+17i)/97
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

=19/97+i17/97

13
OF
25

COMPLEX NO.
Polar form:--x+iy=r(cos+isin)
r=(x2+y2)1/2

tan-1(y/x)_ _

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

14
OF
25

Add 10 45o & 5 30o

Sol. --10 45o + 5 30o
= 10 (cos 45o + isin45o)
o
o
+5(cos 30 + isin 30 )
1
3
1 i1
i
=10( +
+5
+
)
(
2
2 2
2
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

)
15
OF
25

102 +5
= 102+5 2
+i
2
2

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

16
OF
25

Simplify (50 - j 50)-(100- j 50).

Sol. (50 - j 50)-(100- j 50)
= (50 - 100)+j(-50+50) = -50.

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

17
OF
25

Simplify 1000 0o - 100 0o.

Sol. 1000 0o - 100 00.
=1000(cos 0o +j sin 0o )
- 100(cos 0o + j sin 0o)
= 1000 - 100 = 900.
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

18
OF
25

CONJUGATE COMPLEX
Def. Two complex no. differing only
in sign in their imaginary parts are
called conjugate complex. The
conjugate complex of the x +iy is x- iy
and is denoted by z.
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

19
OF
25

CONJUGATE COMPLEX NO.

Properties :-

1. Sum and product real.

Sum = z + z
= x + jy + x - jy = 2x. Which is
real
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

20
OF
25

Product = z . z = (x + jy) (x - y)
= x2 - j2y2 = x2 + y2 (Since j2=-1)
2. Difference imaginary.
z - z = x + jy -x + jy = 2jy
Which is imaginary
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

21
OF
25

Modulus:- The positive square root

2
2
2
2
of x + y i.e x + y is called the
Modules or Absolute Value of z and
is written as| z | or |x + jy| . Thus
r=z or x + jy

AM 6145 L6
40

OF

22
OF
25

Argument:- The directed angle

measured from positive OX to OY
is called the Argument or
Amplitude of z and symbolically
written as arg(z) or arg(x + jy).
Thus = arg(z) = tan-1 y/x
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

23
OF
25

CONVERSION
1. From rectangular form to polar form :-

Let the complex no. be x + jy and r

be its polar form.
Use
and

r= x2 + y2
= tan-1y/x (x & y is given)
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

24
OF
25

Hence z= x2 + y2 tan-1y/x is the

required polar form.
2. From polar form to rectangular
form.
Let z = r be the complex no.
and x + jy its rectangular form.
AM 6145 L6
40

OF

25
OF
25

Use

x = r cos , y=r sin

(since r &

given)
Hence z= r cos + jr sin = r(cos
+ j sin ) will given the required
rectangular form by putting the value
of r and .
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

1
OF
25

Relation between, Z, Z, Z .
Let z = x + jy be a complex no.
=>

z = x + jy = x - jy

Now

z . z = ( x + jy )( x - jy )
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

2
= x2 - OF
(jy)
25
2

z . z = x 2 - j 2y 2 = x 2 + y 2
Also z = x + jy = x2 + y2 .
Square it
=>

[z]2 = x2 + y2 2 = x2 + y2
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

3
OF
25

From (1) & (2) equate the values of

x +y
2

Hence z . z = z

AM 6145 L7
40

OF

4
OF
25

Determine the modulus and

amplitude

1. 4 + j 43

Let z = x + jy = 4 + j43
=>

x = 4, y = 43

Let r and be the Modulus and

amplitude of z.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

5
OF
25

But

r2 = x2 + y2 =(4)2 + (43)2
= 16 + 48 = 64; (r=8)

Also tan = y/x = 43/4 = tan 60o

(Principle value)
=>

= 60o or /3

(Complex no. in 1st quad.) Hence the

required modules is 8 and amplitude is 60o.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

6
OF
25

2. -j5
Given complex no. = -j5 = x + jy
=z
or

x + jy = 0 - j5
x = 0, y = -5 ( By comparing )

Let r and be the modulus and amplitude

of z respectively
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

7
OF
25

But r2 = x2 + y2 = 02 + (-5)2 or r2 = 25;

=>

r=5

(By square root)

Also tan = y/x = -5/0 = - = -tan 90o

=-90o (Principle value of .
between - to )
Hence |-j5| = 5; arg(-j5) = -90o= /2
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

8
OF
25

Show that the roots of equation

2
x - 4x + 13 = 0 are conjugate
complex
Sol. Given n. is
x2 - 4x + 13 = 0
x= 4+- 16 - 52 /2 =
4+ - -36 /2 ( By formula)
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

9
OF
25

= 4 +- j236 /2 = 4 + j6 /2
=2 + j3, 2 - j3

[ j2= -1]

Since the roots are complex

numbers and differ only in sign in
their imaginary parts. Hence the
result.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

10
OF
25

If z=x + jy and z - 2 + j3z is purely

imaginary, find the equation connecting x
and y.
Sol. Given z=x + jy and put this
value of z in z -2 + j3z.
z - 2 + j3z = x + jy - 2 + j3 (x + jy)
= x + jy - 2 + j3x + j23y [ j2= -1]
= ( x - 2 - y) + j(y + 3x)
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

11
OF
25

Since z - 2 + j3z is purely imaginary

Its real part must be zero i.e x -2 -y= 0
Hence x - 3y = 2 is the required relation.

AM 6145 L7
40

OF

12
OF
25

POWER OF COMPLEX NO.

DE MOVERS THEOREM :-

Statement:- To prove
n
(cos + j sin ) = cos n + jsin n
where n is positive or negative
integer or fraction.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

13
OF
25

Let us consider two complex no.

11 and 12 with modulus intensity
in each case.
Now 11= (cos 1+ j sin 1),
12= (cos 2+ j sin 2)
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

14
OF
25

By actual multiplication
11 . 12 .=(cos 1 + j sin 1)
. (cos 2 + j sin 2)
(cos 1 + j sin 1).(cos 2 + j sin 2)
=cos (1+ 2) + j sin (1+ 2)...(1)
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

15
OF
25

Put 1= 2 = in eq. (1)

(cos + j sin ) (cos + j sin )
= cos (+ ) + j sin (+ )
2
( cos + j sin ) = cos 2 + j sin 2
3
Similarly ( cos + j sin )
= cos 3 + j sin3
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

16
OF
25

Hence, in general; (cos + j sin )n

= cos n + j sin n
which is known by the name of
De-Movers Theorem.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

17
OF
25

SIMPLIFY
1. 2 (1 + j3) - 4 (5 - j) + 5 (5 + j2).
Now 2 (1 + j3) - 4 (5 - j) + 5 (5 + j2)
=2 - j6 - 20 + j4 + 25 + j10
=2 + 25 - 20 + j (4 + 10 6)
= 7 + j8 Ans.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

18
OF
25

2. (5 + j3) (3 - j2 )
Now (5 + j3) (3 - j2 )
= 15 + j9 - j 10 - j2 6
(By Multiplication)
Hence (5 + j3) (3 - j2 ), = 15 + 6 - j
= 21 - j Ans.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

19
OF
25

3. e . e
j/3

j/6

Now e . e = e
(Rule of multiplication)
j/3

j/6

j(/3+/6)

Hence ej/3. ej/6 = cos /2 + j sin /2

= 0 + j.1 = j. Ans
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

20
OF
25

To determine the value of cos 3 in

terms of cos by means of

complex no.
Sol. We know cos + j sin = ej
Cubing we get, (cos + j sin )3 = (ej )2
= j3
e
or ej3 = cos3 + j sin3 + 3 j sin cos
(cos + j sin )
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

21
OF
25

= cos - j sin
+ j3 cos2 sin + j23 sin2 cos
3

But ej3 = cos 3 + j

sin 3
or cos 3 + j sin 3
= cos3 - 3 sin2 cos
2
3
+j(3
sin - sin
)
AMcos
6145 L OF
OF 25
7

40

22

Equate real parts;

cos 3
= cos3 - 3 sin2 cos
3
2
= cos - 3 cos (1 - cos )
= cos - 3 cos + 3 cos
3

AM 6145 L7
40

OF

23
OF
25

Hence cos 3 = 4cos3 - 3 cos .

Ans.

AM 6145 L7
40

OF

24
OF
25

z1 = 4ej/4 ,z2 = 5ej/12, express in

polar
and rectangular form.
Polar
form:Now

z1. z2 = 4ej/4 . 5ej/12

z1. z2 = 20ej(/4+x/12)

z1. z2 = 20ej/3 = 20/3 is in the

polar form.
AM 6145 L7
40

OF

25
OF
25

Rectangular form :z1. z2 = 20ej/3

= 20(cos /3 + j sin /3)
= 20 (cos 60o + j sin 60o)
= 20(1/2 + j 3/2)
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

1
OF
25

Hence z1. z2 = 10 + j 103

is in the form of rectangular

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

2
OF
25

VECTORS
Vector Quantities:-The quantities which have
magnitude as well as direction are
called vector quantities
e.g. velocity,displacement,force,
acceleration.
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

3
OF
25

VECTORS
Scalar Quantities:-The quantities which have only
magnitude but no direction
e.g. mass,length,volume,density .

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

4
OF
25

VECTORS
Representation of vectors:-p

o
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

5
OF
25

VECTORS
Notation of Vectors :--Vectors are generally represented by
Bold letters and their magnitude by
corresponding Italic letters .Thus we
may denote OP by a and its magnitude
by a
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

6
OF
25

VECTORS
Modulus of a vectors:-The non-negative number which is the
measure of the magnitude of a vector is called
its modulus.
The modulus of a vector a is a

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

7
OF
25

VECTORS
Zero or Null Vectors :-The vector whose modulus is zero and
direction is indeterminate is called zero
vector.
SYMBOL:-- 0
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

8
OF
25

VECTORS
Unit Vector :--A vector whose modulus is unity, is called a
unit vector . The unit vector in the director of
vector a is represented by .

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

9
OF
25

VECTORS
Like &Unlike Vectors:---Vectors having the same direction are called
Like vectors.and those having opposite
direction are called unlike vectors.

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

10
OF
25

VECTORS
Collinear or Parallel vectors :--Vectors having the same line of action or
having having the line of action parallel to
one another are called collinear vectors.

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

11
OF
25

VECTORS
Equal Vectors :---

Two vectors are said to be equal

if, and only if ,they are parallel ,
have the same sense of direction,
and the same magnitude .

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

12
OF
25

VECTORS
Representation:--A

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

13
OF
25

VECTORS
Negative Vectors:--The vector which has the
same magnitude as a vector a but
opposite direction , is called
negative of a.
Thus if AB= a

then BA= -a

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

14
OF
25

VECTORS
Co-initial Vectors :---The vectors which have the
same initial point are called coinitial vectors .
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

15
OF
25

VECTORS
Co-planar Vectors :---The vectors which are parallel
to the same plane or which lie
in the same plane are said to be
co-planar
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

16
OF
25

VECTORS
Localised Vectors :--A vector which is drawn parallel
to a given vector through a
specified point in space is called
Localised vector.
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

17
OF
25

VECTORS
Free Vectors :--If the origin of vectors is
not specified ,the vectors
are said to be free vectors .
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

18
OF
25

VECTORS
Addition of vectors(Def.) :--Let a and b be any two given vectors. If
three points O,A,B are taken such that
OA=a ,AB= b, then the vector OB is
called the vector sum.
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

19
OF
25

VECTORS
B
a+b
O

b
A

OB =OA+AB or c=a+b
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

20
OF
25

VECTORS
Property of vector addition :--(1)

Vector addition is commutative

i.e.

a+b=b+a

Where a and b are any two vectors

AM 6145 L8
40

OF

21
OF
25

VECTORS
Representation:-a

b
O

b
a
AM 6145 L8
40

A
OF

22
OF
25

VECTORS
PROPERTIES(addition):--(2) Vector addition is associative
i.e. (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

23
OF
25

VECTORS
Representation :--C
c
O

a+b
a
AM 6145 L8
40

A
OF

B
24
OF
25

VECTORS
PROPERTIES :--

(3)

Additive identity element A

For any vector a , a
+ 0 =a
where 0 is null vector
(4) Additive inverse
For every vector a , there exists
the vector - a such that a + (-a) =0
AM 6145 L8
40

OF

25
OF
25

VECTORS
Co-initial Vectors:--- (representation)
D
C
B
O

AM 6145 L
40

OF

1
OF
25

VECTORS
UNIT VECTORS:--The vectors having unit magnitude
and direction & is denoted by ^
e.g.

^a ,b^ ,c^ ----AM 6145 L9

40

OF

2
OF
25

VECTORS
POSITION VECTOR :-If the vector OP represents the
position of the point P in space
relative to the point o , then OP
is called the position vector of P
referred to O as origin
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

3
OF
25

VECTORS
Collinearity of three points ( condition )
The necessary and sufficient
condition for three position vectors
a , b , c is that there exist three
scalars x , y , z not all zero , such
that xa +yb +zc =0 , where
x+y+z =0
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

4
OF
25

VECTORS
Show that the points a, b, 3a-2b
are collinear .
Sol. --The points whose position vectors
are a, b, 3a-2b will be collinear if
there exist there exist three scalars
x, y, z such that xa+yb+z(3a-2b)=0
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

5
OF
25

VECTORS
Where x + y + z = 0
If we take x= -3 , y=2 , z=1
We get -3a + 2b +1(3a-2b) =0
and -3+2+1=0
Hence the points are collinear.

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

6
OF
25

VECTORS
Show that the points a-2b+3c ,
2a-3b-c ,3a-3b +5c are coplanar .
Sol .--Let A, B ,C ,D be the four points
AB = (6a-6b -c) - (a-2b +c)
= 5a-4b-2c
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

7
OF
25

VECTORS
AC = ( 2a-3b-c ) -( a-2b+c )
= a-b-2c
AD= (3a-3b+5c) - (a-2b+4c)
=2a-b +4c
Let AD =xAB +y AC
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

8
OF
25

VECTORS

or 2a-b+4c =x(5a-4b-2c)+y(a-b-2c)
Comparing a&b on both sides
5x+y =2 ------ (1)
4x+y=1 ------ (2)
&

x+y=2

------(3)

Solving (1) & (2) we get

x=1 &y=-3 which
=n (3)
AM 6145 Lsatisfy
OF
OF 25
9

40

VECTORS

(Like vectors )

(Un like vectors)

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

10
OF
25

VECTORS
Dot product of two vectors :-The scalar product of two vectors a
& b whose moduli are a & b
respectively , is defined as a real
number
a.b = ab cos q
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

11
OF
25

VECTORS
Reepresentation
B

a
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

12
OF
25

VECTORS
Geometrical representation of scalar
product
B
M

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

13
OF
25

VECTORS
Properties of scalar products:--(1) the scalar product of two vectors

is commutative
i.e. a.b

= b.a

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

14
OF
25

VECTORS
(2)

a . (-b) = - a . b ;
(-a) . (-b) = a.b

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

15
OF
25

VECTORS
3. If m is any scalar and a and b
are any two vectors. Then
(ma).b=m(a.b)=a.(mb).

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

16
OF
25

VECTORS
4. If two vectors a and b have
the same direction, then =0,
i.e. cos =1 and
a.b= | a || b | cos =ab.
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

17
OF
25

VECTORS
5. If two vectors a and b have the
opposite direction, then = ,
i.e. cos =1 and
a.b = | a || b | cos = -ab.
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

18
OF
25

VECTORS
6. Angle between two vectors in
terms of scalar product
let be the angle between two nonzero vectors a &b then
a.
=cos-1 |a|
b |b|

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

19
OF
25

VECTORS
Condition for perpendicularity
of two vectors
The necessary & sufficient condition
that two non -zero vectors should be
perpendicular is that their scalar product
should be zero
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

20
OF
25

VECTORS
Length of a vector as a scalar product
The length |a| of any vector a is the
non-negative square root of the scalar
product a.a
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

21
OF
25

VECTORS

Orthonormal vector triads i ,j ,k

i.i = i2 =1
j.j = j2 =1

i.j = 0 = j.i
j.k = 0 = k.j

k.k = k2=1

i.k = 0 = k.i

AM 6145 L9
40

OF

22
OF
25

VECTORS

Show that the vectors P= 3i-2j+k

Q= i-3j+5k , R= 2i+j-4k form a right
angled triangle
Proof:-The given vectors will form a triangle
if one of the vectors is sum of the
other two . It is clear that
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

23
OF
25

VECTORS
P=Q+R
3i-2j+k = i-3j+5k+2i+j-4k
= 3i-2j+k
Hence the three vectors form a
triangle
Also P.R =6i2-2j2-4k2
= 6-2-4=
0
AM
6145 L
OF
OF 25
9

40

24

Show that vectors A=2i+3j+k and

B=4i -2j -2k are perpendicular to
each other
Proof :-A & B are perpendicular to each other
If A.B = 0
AM 6145 L9
40

OF

25
OF
25

A.B = (2i+3j+k) .(4i-2j-2k)

= 8i2-6j2-2k2
= 8-6-2= 0

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
a.(b+c) = a.b +a.c
Proof:--

b
o

b+c
M
AM 6145 10
L
40

N a A
OF

2
OF
25

Take OA = a, OB = b and BC = c
Now OC = OB+BC = b+c.
Draw BM and CN perpendiculars
from B and C on OA.
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

3
OF
25

Then OM and ON are the

projections of OB and OC
respectively and MN is the
projection of BC on OA.
Let
OA = | a | = a.
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Now a.(b+c) = a. OC = | a | OC cos

= a ON
= a ( OM+MN)=a OM + aM
= a (projection of b on a ) +
(projection of c on a )
= a.b + a.c

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

5
OF
25

IDENTIES BASED ON
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
1. ( a + b ).( a - b ) = a2 - b2.
We have ( a + b ).( a - b )
= a.a - a.b + b.a - b.a
a 2 - b 2.
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

IDENTIES BASED ON
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
2. ( a + b )2 = a2 + 2a.b + b2.
We have ( a + b )2 = ( a + b).(a + b)
= a.a + a.b + b.a + b.b
= a + a.b + a.b + b
2

AM 6145 10
L
2
40

OF

= a + 2a.b + b

2
7
OF
25

IDENTIES BASED ON
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
3. ( a - b )2 = a2 - 2a.b + b2.
We have ( a - b )2 = ( a - b).(a - b)
= a.a - a.b - b.a + b.b
= a2 - a.b - a.b + b2
2
2
= aAM
-6145
2a.b
+
b
L
OF
10

40

8
OF
25

Prove :- The mid point of the

hypotenuse of a right angled
triangle is equidistant from its
vertices.
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

9
OF
25

ABC is a triangle, right angled at

A. D is the middle point of the
hypotenuse BC.
C
We have
D
BD = DC.
Now AB=AD + DB

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

10
OF
25

And AC = AD + DC = AD + BD
= AD - DB.
But AB and AC are perpendicular
to each other.
AB . AC = 0.
Hence (AD+DB).(AD-DB)=0
AM 6145 L
OF
OF 25
10

40

11

 (AD)2 - (DB)2 = 0
or AD2= DB2
AD =DB =DC

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

Prove that the perpendicular from the

vertices of a triangle to the opposite
sides are concurrent
Proof:-A
F O
B

AM 6145 10
L
40

COF

13
OF
25

Let a, b, c be the position vectors of

A, B and C respectively with
reference to O as the origin of
vectors.
We have OA = -a
and BC = OCAM- 6145
OBL = OF
c - b.
10

40

14
OF
25

Since AO and BC are mutually

perpendicular,
AO.BC = 0, i.e.
or -a.c+a.b=0

-a.(c-b)=0

or a.c = a.b (1)

Again BO=-b and CA = OA - OC

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

= a OF
- c.25
15

Since BO and CA are mutually

perpendicular.
BO.(CA) = 0 or -b.(a-c) =0
or -b.a+b.c

b.a = b.c = a.b

From (1) and (2), we have

a.c = b.c
AM 6145 10
L
40

or c.b = c.a
OF

16
OF
25

 c.(b - a) = 0.
OC and AB are mutually
perpendicular. Hence the three
perpendiculars are concurrent.
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

17
OF
25

Prove that the perpendicular

bisectors of the sides of a triangle
are concurrent.

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

18
OF
25

Let a, b, c be the position vectors of

a+b
b+c
c+a
D, E and F are
,
and
2
2
2
respectively.
b+c
Now OD = 2
A
and BC = OC - OB = c - b
F
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

O
D

E
19
OF
25

Since OD and BC are mutually

perpendicular.
OD . BC = 0 or b+c . (c-b) = 0
2

or

( c+ d ) . ( c - b ) = 0

or

c -b = 0
2

or c = b .
2

(1)

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

20
OF
25

c+a

Again OE = 2 and CA = OA - OC
= a - c.
Since OE and CA are mutually
perpendicular.
OE . CA = 0
or

or c+a .(a - c) = 0
2

(a +c) . (a - c) = 0

or a - c = 0
2

or a = c .

AM 6145210
L
40

2
OF

(2)
21
OF
25

Now from (1) and (2) , we get

a2 = b2 or a2 - b2 = 0
or (a + b) . (a - b) = 0
or
or

1
(a
2

+ b) . (a - b) = 0

OF . BA = 0.

Hence OF is perpendicular to BA.

AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

22
OF
25

Find the cosine of the angle

between the vectors i + j + k and i
- j + k.
Sol. If be the required angle, then
1.1+1.-1+1.1
cos = 2 2 2 2
1 +1 +1 1 +(-1)2+12
1-1+1
1
1
=
=
Thus cos =
3
3
3 3
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

23
OF
25

If | a + b | = | a - b |, prove that a and

b are perpendicular, where a, b are
proper vectors
Sol. Now | a + b | = | a - b |
| a + b |2
or (a+b) =(a-b)
2

AM 6145 10
L
40

[ |a| =a ]
2

OF

24
OF
25

or a +2a . b+b = a +b -2a . b

2

4a . b = 0

or a . b = 0

a and b are perpendicular

[ a, b are proper vectors.]
AM 6145 10
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

VECTOR PRODUCT ( Cross Product)

Definition.:- The vector product of two
vectors a and b is a vector whose
direction is ab sin , where is the
angle between two vectors and whose
direction is that of a unit vector n
perpendicular to both a and b.
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

Geometrical Interpretation of vector

product or Cross Product.
C
B
b

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

Properties of vector product

( or cross
product )
1. Commutative Law does not hold.
If a, b are any two vectors,
then a b b a.
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

3
OF
25

Properties of vector product

( or cross
product )
2. When a and b are parallel.
i.e. a = 0 or b = 0
Here,

=0

ab=0

AM 6145 11
L
40

sin = 0.
OF

4
OF
25

3. When a and b are perpendicular.

Here

= 90o

^
a b = ab(1) n.

AM 6145 11
L
40

sin = 1

OF

5
OF
25

4 . When a & b are unit vectors

^
a b = (1)sin n.
|a b| = sin

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

Vector product of unit vectors i ,j ,k

X

-j

-k

-i

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

7
OF
25

Vector product in terms of rectangular

components of vectors
Let a= gi +cj +dk
b= pi +qj +rk
ab=

i
g
p

j
c
q

AM 6145 11
L
40

k
d
r

OF

8
OF
25

Scalar triple product

Let a= pi+qj+rk
b= gi+hj+fk
c= di+ej+nk
p
a. (b c) = g
d

q
h
e

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

r
f
n

9
OF
25

VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT.

A*(b*c)
here we have to prove that
a*(b*c)=b(a.c)-c(a.b)

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

10
OF
25

FIND THE AREA OF TRIANGLE

WHOSE VERTICES ARE
(3,-1,2),(1,-1,-3),(4,-3,1).
Let ABC be the triangle

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

11
OF
25

Complete the parallelogram.ABCD.

Now BC=(4-1) i+(-3+1)j+(1+3)k
=3i-2j+4k
BA=(3-1)i+(-1+1)j+(2+3)k=2i+0j+5k

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

A(3,-1,2)

B(1,-1,-3)

C(4,-3,1)
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

13
OF
25

Vector area of triangle ABC

=1/2 vector area of ||gm. ABCD
=1/2(3i-2j+4k) (2i+0j+5k)
I
3
= 1/2 2

j
-2
0

k
4
5
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

14
OF
25

=1/2(-10i-7j+4k)
therefore area of triangle ABC
=1/2 | -10I-7j+4k | =1/2100+49+16
=1/2165.

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

15
OF
25

Find the unit vectors to the vectors

1. 2i - j + k and

3i - 4j - k

Sol. Let a= 2i - j + k and b= 3i - 4j - k

a=4 + 1 +1 = 6
and b= 9 + 16 + 1= 26
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

16
OF
25

i
ab= 2
3

-1 1

= 6i + 5j - 5k

-4 -1

| a b | = 36 + 25 + 25 = 86
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

17
OF
25

Hence the required

ab
unit vector =
|ab|
6i + 5j - 5k
=
86
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

18
OF
25

In any triangle ABC, prove that

sin A =
a

sin B = sin C
c
b

Sol. In ABC, suppose

BC = a, CA = b and AB = c.
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

19
OF
25

-A
Let BC = a,
CA = b and
AB = c

b
-C

B
-B

AM 6145 11
L
40

a
OF

C
20
OF
25

We have

a+b+c=0

or a + b = -c
a ( a b ) = a ( -c ) = -a c
or a a + a b = -a c
or 0 + a b = c a
or a b = c AMa6145 L
11

40

OF

.. OF 25
21

Similarly b ( a+ b ) = b ( -c )
= -b c
or

b a + b b = -b c

or -a b + 0 = -b c
or a b = b c
AM 6145 11
L
40

.. (2)
OF

22
OF
25

From (1) & (2), a b = b c = c a

Now a b = b c | a b | = | b c
|
or ab sin (-C) = bc sin (-A)
or ab sin C = bc sin A
(3)
=
a
c
or sin A sin C
Similarly a b = c b
AM 6145 L
OF
40| a b | = | c a |
11

23
OF
25

or
ab sin (-C) = ca sin (-B)
or ab sin C = ca sin B
or sin B = sin C
(4)
c
b
From (3) & (4),
sin A sin B
sin C
a
c
b
AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

24
OF
25

Find the unit vector perpendicular to

the plane of vectors -3j + 4k and 4i +
3j.
Sol. We know that ( A B ) is a vector
perpendicular to the plane of A and B
i

A B = 0 -3

AM 6145 11
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

= i(0-12)-j(o-16)+k(0+12)
=-12i+16j+12k
Unit vector along (-12i+16j+12k) is
-12i+16j+12k
=
(12)2 + (16)2 +(12)2
AM 6145 12
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

-12i+16j+12k
=
144 + 256 + 144
-12i+16j+12k
=
544

AM 6145 12
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

organization And
representation of data
Origin and development
Introduction . The word statistics
is believed to be derived from the latin word

status which means a political status.

The keeping of land records , and vital
statistics , records of deaths and births was a
function of states and statistics was confine
to that purpose only.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Introduction
In India we learn from kautilyas

Arthshastra that the keeping of the records

of deaths and births was prevalent in 300
b.c. So in the past it was considered a
science of king only.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Introduction
However recently statistics has widened its

scope to many sphere : planning , industry

and commerce ,millitry operations and in
fact there is hardly any branch of human
activity where statistics does not come into
play

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Definition
The term statistics is generally used in two

senses .
1. As Numerical data.
2. As statistical method.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 In fact statistics is consider as science of

number as in general statistical figures.

Our purpose is to collect data ,. Another
aspects of statistics is to study the statistical
method something quite technical and
mathematical and apply these methods.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 M.G. Kendal , one of the greatest British

statisticians has defined statistics as :

Statistics as a branch of scientific methods
which deals with natural phenomena.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 However better definition of statistics is by

Secrist as by statistics we mean aggregate

of facts affected to a marked extent by
multiplicity of cause numerically expressed,
enumerated or estimated according to
reasonable strength of accuracy, collected in
a systematic manner for a predetermined
purpose and placed in relation to each
other.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 According to this definition , we find that

statistics deals only with aggregates and

not with individuals. Moreover statistical
data are probabalistic which may vary due
to a number of cause. The purpose for
which the data are collected should be done
with reasonable accuracy.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Limitations
Limitations: as already said earlier statistics

is mainly based upon probability and

statistical data are affected by a number of
causes . Hence statistical results are not
exact and they can not be applied in
individual cases. However nature maintain
balance in large aggregates .
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 For example, if according to statistics , the

ratio of male and female birth is nearly one.

It cannot be said that any person having
four children will have two sons and two
daughters, but if we take a large number of
families, this ratio will approaching to one .

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 Forecast by statistics are also based upon

probability and it should wrong to take

them as granted facts . Wrong logic ,
superession of facts or incomplete data may
be used to mislead the masses.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 As for example, it may be that the number

of people dying in a well furnished hospital

may be more than those dying in a village
dispensary but it would be fallacious to
infer that a treatment in a village dispensary
is better than in a good hospital

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 We have to take into account the respective

numbers and the gravity of diseases treated

at the two places .this misiterpretation and
misuse has led to the distrust of statistics so
much that it is said, there are lies, dawn
lies and statistics.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

uses
As said earlier , statistics has applications in

so many walks of human activities. Some of

them are given below :
in the next slide

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

1. Business and commerce

A manufacturer of cloth must know the

sizes and designs in maximum demand.

Similarly a railway company has to
calculate the cost of running the trains, the
expected traffic in the form of passengers
the goods and then fix up the fares so as to
run in loss and also to keep the customers
satisfied. This is equally true for all sort of
industril undertaking.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

TO THE GOVERENMENT
AND PUBLIC BODIES
All sorts of administration require careful

planning.The state is the biggest employer

and has to plan the number of personnel for
various jobs spread over a large area.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Economics
This is the era of economics planing. The

future of humanity depends upon careful

planning at national and international scale
What would be the population after twenty
years, how many jobs would they require,
how much food would be needed etc, are
vital questions always facing the administ-rators all over the world.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

In Medical Science
Every new drug requires a careful testing
before being recommended and the
effectiv--eness has to judged statistically.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

In agricultural Research
In order to increase agricu-ltural production , new
fertilizers,varied irrigation,
soil and improved seeds have
to be tested and a through
statistical analysis is required
in agriculture research.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

In education
There is always an urge to improve method

of teaching, examination etc every new

method has to be tested statistically before
being implemented .

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

 In fact in all branches where we deal with

large population , we apply statistics in one

way or other in our daily life .

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

Collection or classification of
data
DATA IS PLURAL OF DATUM which

means facts given or admitted from which

other facts may be deduced . In statistics
data are those figures which are collected
from some other source relevant to the
purpose of statistical inquiry .they are of
two kinds .
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

KINDS OF DATA
1.PRIMARY DATA
2. SECONDARY DATA

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

PRIMARY DATA
If data are collected for a specific purpose,

they are known as PRIMARY DATA for

example census figure.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

SECONDARY DATA
DATA collected from other source generally

administrative reports are called secondary

data . Thus data obtained from Reserve
bank reports, custom reports,and from
research journals etc. are examples of
secondary data.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

METHODES OF COLLECTION
OF PRIMARY DATA
1. DIRECT PERSONAL

INVESTIGATION
2. INDIRECT ORAL INTERVIEWS
3. BY SCHEDULES AND
QUESTIONNARIES
4 .BY LOCAL REPORTS .

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

PERSONAL INVESTIGATION
Under this method, investigator collects the

information personally from the source

concerned.the investigator has to be very
tactful in such cases. This method involves
huge cost and usually required a long time.
This method gives very satisfactory results
if scope of the inquiry is narrow.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

PERSONAL INVESTIGATION
This method is suitable where there is need

for a high degree of accuracy . In case of

intensive investigation also , this method is
useful because it tries to contact each and
every source of information.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

INDIRECT ORAL
INTERVIEWS
Under this method, investigator contacts

third parties capable of supplying the

necessary information. Most of the
commissions and committees appointed by
government to collects statistical data or to
carry on such investigations in which
factual data has to be compiled make use of
this method
AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

INDIRECT ORAL
INTERVIEWS
In this method , the accuracy of data

collected would be largely depends on the

type of persons whose evidences are
recorded . For the success of this method , it
is necessary that evidence of one person
alone is not relied upon.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

BY SCHEDULES AND
QUESTIONNARIES

A list of questions relating to the problem i

prepared and the QUESTIONNARIES is

send to the persons concerned ,requisting
them to send the replies. The method is ver
convenient and cheap. Private individuals
,research workers and sometimes the state
also collects the data by this method. In
U.S.A. gallop
poll by OF
news papers OF
is very
AM 6145 L
25
much prevalent
for national issue.
40

Local reports
Local reports are given by local agents . It

is inexpensive but not very reliable.

AM 6145 L
40

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Collection of secondary data

Secondary data are obtained from

published or unpublished sources. The

sources of published data are:

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40

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The source of published data

1. Official publication of the central , state

and the local government bodies.

AM 6145 L
40

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The source of published data

2.Reports and official publication of foreign

bodies such as the international financial

corporation , united nation organisation ;etc

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

The source of published data

3. Reports and publications of trade and

professional bodies , co-operative societies;

etc.

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40

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The source of published data

Technical trade generals like, economics,

commerce , capital and Indian finance ;etc

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The difference between primary

and secondary data
1. Primary data : They are collected for the

first time and have original character .

1. Secondary data : These are already
collected by some other person and dont
have original character .

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The difference between primary

and secondary data
2.Primary data : These are in the form of

raw material .
2.Secondary data : These are usually in the
form of finished products .

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The difference between primary

and secondary data
3.Primary data : These data are converted

into secondary after statistical treatment.

3. Secondary data : These data cannot be
converted into primary data .

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Types of data
Statistical method are deal with two types

of data
1. Population
2. Sample

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Population
Population: The complete set of data

relating to an area of interest is called

Population. Suppose we want to know
average life of a bulb produced by a firm.
Then all bulb produced by factory in past
and present and future will form population.

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Sample
Sample a sample is the part of population

taken to have an idea of the whole

population . For example To find the
average life of all bulbs produced , we take
a sample, may be 50 bulbs or 100 bulbs.

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Variable
Any quantity which varies is called a

variable. There are two type of variable.

1. Discrete variable
2. Continuous variable

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Discrete Variable
1.Discrete Variable: Any quantity which is

incapable of taking all possible values is

called called a discrete variable.
For example :
1. Number of members in a family can not
be 9/2
2. Number of accidents on road can not be
7/3
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Continuous variable
2.Continuous variable: A variable which can

take any value is called a continuous

variable.
For example : Measurements such as
heights, pressure, temperature etc.

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FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
AND
REPRESENTATIO
N OF DATA
AM 6145 12
L
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OF

3
OF
25

UNGROUPED DATA
The data which the dies not give
any useful information and also
is not in the easily assimilable
form is called Row or
Ungrouped Data as given above.
AM 6145 12
L
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OF

4
OF
25

DISTRIBUTION
When the ungrouped data is
arranged in the ascending or
descending order of the
magnitude, such arrangement
is called Distribution or Series
AM 6145 12
L
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OF

5
OF
25

VARIATE
A quantity which can taken any
numerical called a Variable or
variate (in statistics).The variable
which can take any numerical
value within a certain range,
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6
OF
25

Is called a Continuous Variable

and the quantity (Variate) which
can assume only discrete
values, is called Discontinuous
Variable.

AM 6145 12
L
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OF

7
OF
25

FREQUENCY
The number of times the value of
a particular variate is repeated in
a data is called the Frequency of
that variate.For example, 2is the
frequency of variate 71 from the
data given above.
AM 6145 12
L
40

OF

8
OF
25

CLASSIFICATION
By expression the data in a
series, the bulk of the data is
not reduced. For reducing the
bulk of the data and for better
under standing.
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OF

9
OF
25

The data is summarised

into a convenient number
of groups.It is called the
Classification and each
group is called a Class.
AM 6145 12
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OF

10
OF
25

For example
Class

Frequency
(f)

frequency

Cumulative
(C.f) Less than

More than
50-55

50

55-60

47

60-65

16

42

65-70

16

32

34

70-75

12

44

18

75-80

50

Total

-------AM 6145 12
L
f = 50
40

OF

11
OF
25

CLASS LIMITS
50,55,60.. etc. are called
the Class limits. The
distance between two limits
of a class is called its Width
or size or Magnitude or
Class interval.
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12

40

12

The higher value of two limits

of a class is called its Upper
Limit

AM 6145 12
L
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OF

13
OF
25

Measure of central tendency

Arithmetic mean :-It is defined as the ratio of sum
of the observation . If 1,2,3
------ ,n are the n observation
then their A.M. is defined as
x=
(1+2+3+------+n)/n
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OF
12

40

14
OF
25

Measure of central tendency

Arithmetic mean of 1,3,5,7,9 is
1+3+5+7+9
x=
5
= 255
=5
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OF

15
OF
25

Measure of central tendency

The A.M. of first n natural numbers
1+2+3+4+--------- +n
=
n
n(n+1)
=
2n
n+1
=
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2 40
12

16
OF
25

Measure of central tendency

A.M. of the square of
1st n natural numbers
12+22+32 + ------- +n2
=
n
(n+1) (2n+1)
=
AM
6145 L
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6
40
12

17
OF
25

Measure of central tendency

A.M. of cubes of first n natural
numbers.
13+23+33+..+n3
=
n
2
2
2
n(n+1)
n (n+1)
=
=
4n 6145 L OF 4 OF 25
AM
12

40

18

The A.M. of 7, 9, 5, 2, 4, 8, x is given

to be 7. Find x.
Sol. x= 7+9+5+2+4+8+x
7

But x=7

35+x=77=49
or
x=49-35=14
AM 6145 12
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OF

19
OF
25

When the data given is in the discrete

frequency distribution form :
If x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2
times, xn occurs fn times
then the Arithmetic mean is
defined as :
x1f1+x2f2+.+xnfn
x= f +f2+.+f
1
n
AM 6145 12
L
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OF

20
OF
25

xifi
= f
i
Sum of product of each obs. And its frequency
=
Total no. of frequency

AM 6145 12
L
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OF

21
OF
25

In a class test, distribution of marks

obtained by student out of 10 marks
is given below :
Marks : 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency : 13 10 5 6 7
Find Arithmetic mean.
fixi
Sol. x =
fi
AM 6145 12
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OF

22
OF
25

013+110+25+3 6+4 7
=
41
62 = 1.5122
= 41

AM 6145 12
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OF

23
OF
25

CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
Marks of student out of 50 marks
of 30 students.
Class interval 0-10 10-20 20-30
frequency
10
5
8
Class interval 30-40
40-50
frequency AM 6145
5 L OF 2 OF 25
12

40

24

Sol.
Class int. mid. val.(x)
0 10
5
10 20
15
20 30
25
30 40
35
40 50
45
AM 6145 12
L
40

freq.(f)
10
5
8
5
2
30
OF

fx
50
75
200
175
90
590
25
OF
25

fx
590
x= f = 30 = 19.66

AM 6145 13
L
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OF

1
OF
25

Short Cut Method of Solving

Arithmetic Mean
To simplify the tedious calculations
we use the short cut method. In this
method we ourselves assume we use
the value of mean and subtract this
assumed mean from each value of x.
AM 6145 13
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OF

2
OF
25

In this way the bigger observation

becomes smaller and and makes the
calculations simple. Formula for
solving by this method is :fd
x=A+ f
Where A is assumed mean
f=frequency
d=deviation from assumed mean
AM 6145 L
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d=x-A 40
13

Example
Class
mid. freq. d=x-25
int. val.(x) (f)
0 10
5
10
-20
10 20 15
5
-10
20 30 25
8
0
30 40 35
5
10
40 50 45
2
20
30
AM 6145 L
OF
13

40

fd
-200
-50
0
50
40
-160
OF 25
4

Let the assumed mean A=25

-160
x=25+
30
=25-5.33=19.66
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

5
OF
25

Example of step deviation method.

Class
int.
0 7
7 14
14 21
21 28
28 35
35 42
42 49

mid.
val.(x)
3.5
10.5
17.5
24.5
31.5
38.5
45.5

freq. d1=x-A
(f)
h
19
-3
25
-2
36
-1
72
0
51
1
43
2
28
3
274

AM 6145 13
L
40

OF

fd1
-57
-50
-36
0
51
86
84
78

6
OF
25

x = 24.5 + (78/274)7
= 26.5

AM 6145 13
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OF

7
OF
25

MEDIAN
If the given values of x are arranged
in an increasing or decreasing order
of magnitudes then the middle most
value in the arrangement is called
the median of x.
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

8
OF
25

When the number of values n, is

odd, the middle most value
n+1
th value in the
i.e
2
arrangement will be the median of x

AM 6145 13
L
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OF

9
OF
25

e.g 1, 7, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21.

There are 9 observations
arranged in increasing order so
9+1
median is 2 th = 5th
observation so 15 is the median
of the above data.
AM 6145 13
L
40

OF

10
OF
25

When x is even, then the median is

the mean of the two middle values
n
n
i.e. mean of 2 th and ( 2 +1) th
observations e.g. 1, 3, 7, 9, 16, 18
there are 6 values i.e. even no. of
observations so median
3rd+4th 7+9
=
=8.L OF
= AM 6145
OF 25
2
2
40
13

11

Formula for calculating the median is

given as
N- C
2
Median = l+
h
f
Where l=the lower limit of median class
N=total frequency
AM 6145 13
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

C=Commutative frequency of the

class preceding the median class
f=frequency of median class
h=length of Median class
AM 6145 13
L
40

OF

13
OF
25

For example calculate the

median from the following
table:
Variables : 2
Frequencies: 5

4
8

10

12

14

16

13

15

16

11

AM 6145 13
L
40

OF

14
OF
25

Sol.
x

Frequency
(f)

Cumulative frequency
(C.f) Less than

13

13

26

15

41

10

16

57

12

11

68

14

74

16

4 AM 6145 13
L
40

78
OF

15
OF
25

N = 78
N/2 = 78/2 = 39
39 < 41 and closer to 41,
so median is 8.
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

16
OF
25

Calculate the median from

the following figures
Class interval 0-7 7-14 14-21 21-28 28-35 35-42
Frequencies

14

AM 6145 13
L
40

16

OF

17
OF
25

Sol.
x

Frequency
(f)

Cumulative frequency
(C.f) Less than

0-7

7-14

15

14-21

14

29

21-28

16

45

28-35

54

35-42

60

AM 6145 13
L
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OF

18
OF
25

N = 60, N/2 = 30
Median class = 21 - 28
l = 21 h = 7 f = 16 c = 29
Median = 21 + [(30-29)/16]7
= 21 + 0.44 = 21.44
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

19
OF
25

MODE
Mode=xl+[( fm - f1)/(2fm- f0 -f1)h]

Where xl is the lower limit

of the medal
class
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

20
OF
25

fm- frequency of the medal

class
f1- frequency of the class
preceding the medal class
f0 - frequency of the class
succeeding the medal class
h - width of the class interval
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

21
OF
25

Medal class is the

class interval having
Max. frequency.
AM 6145 13
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OF

22
OF
25

Example : Calculate the

value of mode from the
following data.
Marks 16 18 22 16 15 16 22
16 14 10 11 16
16 occurs maximum number
of times i.e. 5 times so
Mode = 16
AM 6145 13
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OF

23
OF
25

Example : Calculate the

value of mode from the
following data.
Variables : 6

12

18

24

30

36

42

48

Frequencies: 9

11

25

16

10

Variable = 18 has max

frequency 25 so it is mode of
the given data
AM 6145 13
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OF

24
OF
25

Calculate the mode

Daily wages 0-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-45 45-50

No. of
workers

12

16

Modal class 20-30

modal frequency fm = 16
AM 6145 13
L
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OF

25
OF
25

Frequency of class preceding

the modal class f1 = 12
Frequency of class succeeding
the modal class f0 = 8
xl- lower of modal class = 10
AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

Mode=20+[(16-12)/(32-12-8)]10
= 20 + 3.33 = 23.33

Mode = 3 Median-2 Mean

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

Standard deviation

(xi - x)2

i=1
n

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

3
OF
25

Standard deviation

fi xi

(fi xi)

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Standard deviation

fi di

(fi di)

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

5
OF
25

Standard deviation

= h

fi di

fi di

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

Example : Find out the standard

deviation for the following data
5, 8, 7, 11, 9, 8, 2, 4, 6, 7.
2
x
x-x
(x-x)
5
-2
4
8
1
1
7
0
0
11
4 6145 L OF
16OF 25
AM
14

40

x
9
10
8
2

x-x
2
3
1
-5
AM 6145 L
40

(x-x)
4
9
1
25
OF

8
OF
25

x
4
6
7

x-x
-3
-1
0

(x-x)
9
1
0

(xi - x)2 = 70

n = 11

Given data is 5, 8, 7, 11, 9, 10, 8, 2,

4, 6, 7
AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

9
OF
25

5+8+7+11+9+10+8+2+4+6+7
x=
11
77
= 7
=
11
Standard deviation = S.D. =
2
70

(xi
x)
=
= 11
n

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

10
OF
25

Compute the mean and

standard deviation for the
following data :
x: 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
f : 3 6 132 153 140 51 2

AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

11
OF
25

Sol.
mid.
val.(x)
25
35
45
55
65
75
85

freq. d=x-A
fd
fd2
(f)
h
3
-3
-9
27
61
-2
-122
244
132
-1
-132
132
153
0
0
0
140
1
140
140
51
2
102
204
2
3
6
18
N=542
fidi=-15 fidi2=765
AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

x-55
d= 10

25-55
= 10

-30
= 10

=-3
fidi
h
Mean = A +
N
-15
=55 + 542 10 =55 - 0.28
= 54.72
Mean = x = 54.72
AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

13
OF
25

Standard deviation =
=
= 10
= 11.9

fi di

765
542

fi di

N
-15
542

10 414405
=
542

S.D. = = 11.9
AM 6145 14
L
40

OF

14
OF
25

AM 6145 L
40

OF

OF 25

STATISTICAL CONTROL CHARTS

INTRODUCTION:-

In this age of hard compitition it is

essential for a businessman to be ever
vigilent about the quality of the goods
produced . To capture the market he
should provide the consumer with
better
AM 6145 L
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OF

INTODUCTION OF SCC:quality and suitable price so that a kind

of good will for its product be

developed . For improving quality,
measuers of Quality Control Charts be
adopted .For this purpose Controk
charts are made.
A control chart is a stastical device
AM 6145 L
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OF

INRODUCTION:principally used for the study and

control of repetitive processes

Dr. Walter A. Shewhart ,its originalor,
suggested that control charts may
serve, first to define the goal or
standered the process that the
AM 6145 L
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OF

INTRODUCTION:managament may strive to attain,

secondly it may be used as an

instument to attain this goal and
thirdly it may serve as a mean judging
whether the goal is being achieved.
Thus it is an instrument to be used in
AM 6145 L
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INTRODUCTION:spesification and inspection and is core

stastical quality control.A control chart

is essentialy a graphic device for
presenting data so as to directly reveal
the frequency and extent of varition of
goals. Control Charts are easy to
AM 6145 L
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OF

INTRODUCTION:construct and simple to interpret and

they tell the manager at aglance

whether or not the process is in
control.
A Control Chart consists three
horizontal lines
AM 6145 L
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INTROUCTION: (a) A central line(cl) to indicate the desired

standered
(b) Upper Control Limit (UCL)
( c) Lower Control Limit

from time to time a samole is taken

and data are ploted on the graph paper.

AM 6145 L
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INTRODUCTION:So long as the sample points fall with

a lower and upper control limits there

is nothing to worry otherwise when a
sample points falls outside the control
limits it is consider to be as danger
signal
AM 6145 L
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INTRODUCTION:-`
there are different types of control

charts . Here we shall discuss Control

Chart for mean and for Range and
Control Chart for C(number of
defects) in the Sample and Control
Chart for
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Introduction:p . Which is used to tell us about the

number of articles inspected and the

number found defective.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

MEAN OF CHART: i.e. ,X1,X2,X3 etc. this is done by deviding

the sum of the values included in sample

( X) by the number of items in the
sample

X=( X) /n
2.obtain the mean of the sample means
i.e. X.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

MEAN OF CHART: This is done by dividing the sum of the

sample means( X) by the number of

samples to be included inn the chart.

X= X /no. of samples
The control limits are set at

U.C.L.=X+A2R
AM 6145 L
40

OF

CONTROL CHART FOR C: The C-chart is designed to control the

number of defects per unit . It is very

popularly used in stastical work.
Control Chart for C is used in situations
wherein the oppertunity for defects is large
while the actual occurrence tends to be
small.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For C: Such situatios are desired by the Poisson

Distribution. This happens,for example, if

we count the number of number of
imprefactions in a piece of cloth, the
number of air bubbles in piece of glass, the
number of blemilshes in a sheet of paper ,
etc .
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For C: Let C stands for no of defects counted in

one unit of cloth. (paper,glass,roll of wire )

and C[bar] for means of defects counted
in severel (Usually 25 or more) such units
of cloth.The central line of control chart
for C is C [bar] and the 3-sigma control
limits are:
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For C: U.C.L. = C[bar]+3 [sqrt]C[bar]

L.C.L = C[bar]-3[sqrt]C[bar]

The formula is based on a normal

curve approximation to the Poisson
Distribution. The use of C -chart is
appropirate if the oppurtunities for defect
in each production unit are infinte ..
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For C: but the probability of a defect at any point

is very small and is consistent.

Uniform sample size is

higerly desirable while using the C-chart.
where sanple size varies particulerly if the
variation is large.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For C: The C-chart becomes difficult to read , and

the p part (disscused just after the Cchart) provides a better choice.
Uses of C chart:
C chart s are widely used . They
are used in different ways.

AM 6145 L
40

OF

Uses Of C-chart: Amongst control chart for attributes ,the

C-chart is most widely used in practice.

some important applications of C-chart
are given below: 1. The number of defects in a galvanised
sheet or painted plate or enamelled
surface of given area.
AM 6145 L
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OF

Uses Of C-Chart
2.the number of defects of all types

in air-crafts, sub-assemblies or final

assemblies.
3. number of efects observed a roll of
paper , bale of cloth , sheet of
photographic film .
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For p: The P-chart is drawn to control the

percentages or peroportion of defective per

sample . since the number of defectives (C)
can be converted into a percetage
expressed as a decimal fraction merely by
dividing C by the sample size ,the P-chart
may be used in place of C-chart.
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart for p

The P-chart is drawn to control the

percentsge.It has its theortical basis inn

the binomial distribution ,and generly
gives best results when the sample size is
large , say , at least , 50.the steps in
constructing the chart are:

AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For p: (a) Compute the average fraction

defective(p[bar]) by dividing the number of

defective by the total no. of units
inspected.
(b) On the chart draw a solid horizontal
line represent p.
( c) Detrmine the upper and lower control
AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For p: limits The upper and lower control limits

are obtained by the average fraction

defective pulses and minus three times
and standered error as follows:
U.C.L. =
=p[bar] + [sqrt][p[bar]* (1-p[bar] / n]

AM 6145 L
40

OF

Control Chart For p: L.C.L.=

=p[bar] - 3[sqrt][p[bar]*(1-p[bar]) / n]
while constructing the chart ,it is genrely
preffered to express results in terms of
percent defective. the percent defective is
100 p. Any sample point outside the
control
AM 6145 L
40

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Control Chart For p: limits is evidence of a possible lack of

control in as much as probability of getting

such values by chance is less than the
0.003.

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FOURIER
SERIES
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FOURIER SERIES
A SERIES OF sines & cosines of an angle
and its multiples of the form

f(x)=a0/2+a1cosx+a2cos2x+

+b1sinx+b2sin2x+b3sin3x+
=a0/2+ ancosnx+ bnsinnx.
is called fourier series,where

a0,a1,a2.., b1,b2are constants.

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FOURIER SERIES
A constant term a0(called d.c. component in

electrical work).
A component at the fundamental freqency
determined by the values of a1,b1.
Components of the harmonics(multiples of
fundamental frequency)determined by
a2,a3..,b2,b3..
a0,a1,b1,b2 are known as fourier constants
or fourier cofficients.
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Determination of fourier co-efficient

f(x)=a0/2+a1cosx+a2cos2x+..+ancosnx .

+b1sinnx+b2sin2x++bnsinnx+
to find a0: int0[ f(x)dx]2pi=a0/2 0[ dx]2pi+a1 0[cosx

dx]2pi + a2 0[cos2x dx]2pi ++an

0[cosnx dx]2pi +.+b1 0[sinx dx]2pi+b2
0[sin2x dx]2pi+.+bn 0[sinnx dx]2pi+...
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to find an: int 0[f(x) cosnx dx]2pi =

=an o[cos2nx dx]2pi

=an pi
an= 1/pi int o[f(x) cosnx
dx]2pi
by taking values 1,2,3,
.. we can find out the values of
a1,a2,a3.
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to find bn: multiply both sides of (i) by sinnx and

integrate from x=0 to x=2pi.

int 0[f(x) sinnx dx]2pi=bn 0[sin2nx dx]
=bn * pi
bn=1/pi 0[f(x) sinnx dx]2pi
by taking n=1,2,3,we can find
b1,b2,b3..
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Periodic function:If a function f(x) satisfied by

all real values of x and there
exist smallest positive number T
such that f(x+T) = f(x) the
function is said to be periodic
and T is called
Period
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For example the simplest

periodic functions are sin x
and cos x with period 2 and
the period of tan x is
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Find the period of sin 2x, cos 4x

Sol. The given function is sin 2x.

Period of sin x is 2

cos2x = sin (2x + 2) = sin 2(x + )

the change in the value of x is
sin 2x is a periodic function
with period .
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Given function is cos 4x and period of

cos x is 2.

cos 4x = cos(4x + 2 ) = cos 4(x+ 2 )

Change in value of x is 2

Hence the period of cos 4x is2 .

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Determine the smallest period of

cos 2x + tan 3x + cosec 5x
sol. :-- period of cos2x , tan 3x,

2
,
cosec 5x are
, .
3 5
Period of given function is L.C.M.

2
,
of
, = 2
3 5
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Even function : - A function f(x) is

said to be even function if
f(-x) = f(x) .
Graphically it is symmetric about
2
y axis examples are x , cos x.

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EVEN FUNCTION

T
2

-1
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PROBABILITY
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

1. DIE :- it is small cube used in
gambling on its faces are marked
the plural of die is dice. The
outcome through in a die is the
number of dots on its upper face.
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

Trial and Events :- Let an
experiment be repeated under
essentially the same conditions and
let it result in any one of the several
possible outcome. Then the
experiment is called a trial and the
possible outcome are known as events
or cases
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For Example :(a)- Tossing a coin is a tail

andthe turning up of head or
tailis an event.
(b)- Throwing a die is a trial
getting 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5
or 6 is an event.
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

Exhaustive Events :- The total

number of all possible outcomes
in any trial is known as
exhaustive events or exhaustive
cases.
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For Example :(a)- In tossing a coin,

there are
two
exhaustive events, head or
tail.
(b)- In throwing a die,
there are
6 exhaustive
cases for any one
of six faces may return up.
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

Favourable Events or Cases :The happening of an event are

said to be Favourable cases.
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For Example. (a) In throwing a die,

the number of cases favourable to the
appearance of an even number are
three e.g. 2, 4 and 6.
(b) In throwing two dice, the number
of cases favourable to getting a sum
6 is 5 e.g (1, 5); (5, 1); (2, 4); (4, 2);
(3, 3).
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

Mutually Exclusive Events:- Events
are said to be mutually exclusive or
disjoint when both cannot happen
simultaneously in single trial.

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For Example. (a) In tossing a coin,

the events head and tail are mutually
exclusive.
(b) A person may be either alive or
dead at a point of time he cannot be
both alive as well as dead at the same
time.
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DEFINATION OF VARIOUS TERMS

Equally Likely Events:- Events are

said to be equally likely when one
dose not occur more often than the
others.
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For Example. (a) When a card is

drawn from a well shuffled pack, any
card may appear in draw so that the
52 different cases are equally likely.
(b) In throwing a dice all the six faces
are equally to come.
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Independent and Dependent

Events :Two or more events are said to be
independent if the happening or nonhappening of any one does not
dependent by the happening or nonhappening of any other. Otherwise
they are said to be dependent.
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For Example :
If a card is drawn from a pack of
shuffled cards and replaced before
drawing the second card the result of
the second drawn is independent of the
first drawn. However, if the first card is
not replaced than, the second drawn is
dependent on the first drawn.
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Random Experiment :- Occurrences

which can be repeated a number of
times, essentially under the same
condition and whose result cannot be
predicted before hand are known as
random experiments or in other words
any experiment whose outcome
cannot be predicted or determined in
advance is a random experiment.
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Sample Space :- Out of the several

possible outcome of the random
experiment, one and only one can take
place in a trial. The set of all these
possible outcomes is called the sample
space and is denoted by S.
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For Example :- If a coin is tossed, the

possible outcomes are H( Head) and
T(Tail).
Thus

S = {H, T}

The two sample points are H and T.

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Finite Sample Space:- If the number

of sample points in the sample space is
finite, we call it the finite sample space.
Event :- Every sub set of S, the sample
space is called an event.
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Mathematical ( or classical or a
Priori ) :- Definition of probability.
If a trial results in n exhaustive,
mutually exclusive and equally
likely cases and m of them are
favourable to the happening of an
event E,
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then the probability of happening

of E is given by
Favourable number of case
P or P(E) =
Exhaustive number of cases

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Statistical ( or Empirical)
Definition of Probability
If in n trials, an event E happens m
time, then the probability of happening
of E is given by
m
Lt
P = P(E) = n n
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Factorial Notation, Permutation

and Combinations ( Recapitulation)
(1). The continued product of the first
n natural numbers is denoted by the
symbol n! and is read as factorial n.
Thus n! = 1.2.3.4(n-1).n
and 5!= 5.4.3.2.1 = 120
n! = n (n-1)! = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)! etc.
We define 0! = 1.
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Principle of association of
operations.
If one operation can be performed
in m ways and if corresponding to
each of these m ways of performing
this operation, there are n ways of
performing in the two operations
together is mn.
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The number of permutations of n

different things taken r at a time in
which three particular things are always
r
n-3
Included is P3 Pr-3
Excluded is

n-3

Pr

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Example In a class 10 students, 4

are boys and and the rest are girls,
find the probability that a student
slected will be a girl.
Sol. Number of students=10
number of boys=4
number of girls=6
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The probability that a girl is slected

favourable number of cases
= Exhaustive number of cases
3
6
=
5
10
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Example2. A bag contains 6 red, 5

white and 4 black balls.Two balls are
drawn. Find the probability that none of
them is red.
Sol. Total numbers of
balls=6+5+4=15
15
Two balls can be drawn= C2 ways
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= 15C2 ways
15 14
= 2 1 =105 ways
Two number of non red balls =5 + 4= 9
98
9
Number of favourable cases = C2 =
21
=36
12
36
=
Required probability =
105 35
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Example :- What is the chance that a

non-leap year should have fifty three
Sundays.
Sol. A non-leap year consist of 365
days. Therefore, in a non-leap year,
there are 52 complete weeks and 1 day
over,
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which can be any one of the seven days

of the week but there is only one
favourable case that it is Sunday.
Number of favourable cases = 1
Exhaustive number of cases = 7
1
required probability =
7
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Example 5. What is the probability of

obtaining a total of 9 in a single throw
of two dice.

Sol. Exhaustive number of case = 62

= 36
Favourable case are (3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4),
(6, 3)
Their numbers = 4
Reqd. Prob.
=
2/10
=
1/5
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Example : From a set of 17

cards, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4,..
16, 17, one is drawn at random.
Show that the chance that its
number is divisible by 3 or 7 is
7/17.
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Sol. Exhaustive number of cases

= 17 Numbers divisible by 3
are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and those
divisible by 7 are 7, 14.
Favourable number of cases
= 5 +2=17
Required prob. = 7/17
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Example :- A card is drawn from an

ordinary pack and a gambles bets that it
is a spade or an ace. What are the odds
against his winning the bet?
Sol. From a pack of 52 cards, one card
can be drawn in 52 ways.
Exhaustive number
cases = 52
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Number of ways in which a card can be

a spade =13
Number of ways in which a card can be
an ace = 3 (since one ace is in spades)
Number of favourable cases =
Number of ways in which a card can be
a spade or an ace
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 The probability of the bet = 16/52=

4/13

The probability of loosing the bet = 1 (4/13) = 9/13

Hence the odds against winning =
9: 4 =9:4
13 13
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Example :- what is the chance of

throwing a total of 3 or 5 or 11 with
two dice.
Sol. Three events are mutually
exclusive
Exhaustive number of cases = 62 =36
Let P1, P2, and P3 be the probability
of throwing a total of 3, 5 and 11
respectively
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 favourable faces of throwing a total

of 3 are (1, 2); (2, 1) i.e. 2 cases
P1 = 2/36
Favourable cases of throwing a total of
5 are (1, 4); (4,1); (2, 3); (3, 2) i.e. 4
cases
P2 = 4/36
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Favourable cases of throwing a total of

11 are (5, 6); (6, 5) i.e 2 cases
P3 = 2/36
If P is the probability of throwing a
total of 3 or 5 or 11, then
P = P 1 + P2 + P 3
P = 2/36 + 4/36 + 2/36 = 8/36 = 2/9
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Example :- If for two mutually

exclusive events A & B.
P(B) = 2P(A) and AB=S find P(A)
Sol. We know that
AB=S
P(AB) = P(S)
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 P(A) + P(B) = 1
P (A) + 2P(A) = 1
3P (A) = 1
P(A) = 1/3 (Ans.)
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Example :- A,B and C are 3 mutually

exclusive events associated with a
random experiment find P(A). Given
that P(B) = 3/2 P(A) and P(C) = 1/2
P(B).
Sol. Since A, B and C are three
mutually exclusive events, we have,
P(A) + P(B) + P(C) = 1
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P(A) + 3/2 P(A) + 1/2 P(B) = 1

P(A) + 3/2 P(A) + 1/2 x 3/2 P(A) =1
P(A) + 3/2 P(A) + 3/4 P(A) = 1
P(A) [1+ 3/2 + 3/4 ] = 1
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4+6+3
P(A)
4
P(A)

13
4

=1

=1

4
P(A) =
13
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Example :- In the given race, the

odds in favour of 4 horses A, B, C, D
are 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6 respectively.
Assuming that a dead heat is
impossisie ; find the chance that one
of them wins the race.
Sol. Let P1, P2, P3 and P4 be the
probabilities of winning of the horse
A, B, C and DAM
respectively.
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Since a dead heat is not possible, the

events are mutually exclusive, odds in
favour of A are 1:3 P1 = 1/4.
Similarly P2= 1/5, P3 = 1/6 and
P4 = 1/7
If P is the chance that one of them
wins, then P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 =
1/4 + 1/5 + 1/6 +1/7=
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SIMPLE AND
COMPOUND INTEREST
Simple events:- A simple events is a
single events
Compound events :- When two or more
simple events occur in connection with
each other, the simultaneous occurrence
is called Compound events.
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For Example :- If a bags contain

5 red and 4 white balls and we
are required to find the chance
in which 3 ball can be drawn, all
red, then it is a simple event.
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However, if we are required to

find the chance of drawing 4 red
balls and then 2 white balls,
then it is a compound event
because it is made up of two
simple events.
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Notation. If E1and E2 are two

simple events, then E1E2 denotes
the simultaneous occurrence of
E1 and E2. Thus E1E2 is called a
compound event.
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Mutually Independent Events.

Events are said to be
independent when the
probability of happening of any
one of them does not depend
upon the probability of
happening or non-happening of
the others. AM 6145 L OF
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For example, when we toss

two coins we have independent
events because the probibitity
of occurance of head or tail on
the second coin does not
depend on the occurance of
head or tail on the first coin.
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CONDITIONAL PROBIBILTY

The probability of the

happening of an event E1 when
anoyher event E2 is known to
have already happened is called
conditional probability and is
denoted by P (E1/E2).
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Multiplicative Independent
Events. Or Theorem of
Compound probability
The probability of simultaneous
occurrence of two events is equal
to the probability of the events
multiplied by the conditional
probability ofAMthe
other.
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For two events A and B

P(AB) = P(A)P(B/A)
P(B/A) = P(AB) / P(A), P(A) > 0
or P(A B) = P(B) P(A/B)
P(A/B) = P(A B)/P(B), P(B) > 0
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Where P(B/A) and P(A/B) represent

the conditional probability of
occurrence of B when the event A has
already happened and occurrence of
A when the event B has already
happened respetively.
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Example :- The odds against A solving

certain problem are 8 to 6 and the odds
in the favour of B solving the same
problem are 14 to 10. What is the
probability that if both of them try, the
problem will be solved?
Sol. The probability of A to solve the
problem = 8/(8+6) = 4/7.
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The probability of failure of B to solve

the Problem = 10/(14+10) = 5/12
The probability that both A and B
fail to solve the problem.
=(4/7)(5/12) = 5/21
Hence the probability that the problem
will be solved by at least one of them
=1-(5/21) = 16/21.
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Example :- There are three events A, B

and C one of which must, and only one
can happen. The odds are 8 to 3 against
A, 5 to 2 against B ; find the odds
against C.
Sol. The problem of As happening
= 3/(8+3) = 3/11
The problem of Bs happening
= 2/(5+2)=2/7
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Because one and only one of the events

can and must happen
The Prob. C;s happpening
= 1-(3/11+2/7) = 1-43/77 = 34/ 77
The probaility of Cs non-happening =
1-34/77 = 43/77
hence the odds against C are 43 : 34.
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Example :- Find the chance of getting

at least one six in throw of four dice .
Sol. The probbility of throwing a six
with one die = 1/6
The probbility of not throwing a six
with one die = 1 - 1/6 = 5/6
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The probbility of not throwing

with four dice = (5/6)4
Hence the probability of
throwing at least one six with four
dice =1- (5/6)4
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Example :- a speak truth in 60% cases

and B in 70% cases. In what percentage
of cases are they likely to contradict
each other in stating the same fact.
Sol. They will condratic each other
only if one of them speaks the truth and
other tells a lie.
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The Prob. Of speaking the truth and B

telling a lie = 60/100 30/100 = 9/50
The Prob. Of A telling a lie and B
speaking the truth = 40/100 70/100
= 14/50
The prob. Of their contradicting
each other = 9/50 + 14/50 = 23/50
=23/50 100 = 46%.
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Example :- If P(A) = 0.4, P(B)=0.8,

P(B/A)= 0.6 find P(A/B) and P(AB)
Sol.

P(A) = 0.4
P(B) = 0.8
P(B/A) = 0.6

P(A/B) =?
P(AB) =?

P(B/A)= P(AB)/P(A)
0.6 = P(A B)/0.4 p(AB)= 0.24
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P(A/B) = P(AB)/P(B)= 0.24/0.8 = 0.3

Now P(AB)= P(A) + P(B) - P(A B)
= 0.4 + 0.8 - 0.24
= 1.2 - 0.24 = 0.96
Hence P(A/B) = 0.3
P(AB) = 0.96
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LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS
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Laplace Transform
Laplace transforms or Laplace
transformation is a method for
solving linear differential equations
arising in Physics and Engineering.
It reduces the problem of solving a
differential equation to an algebraic
problem.
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Integral Transform (Definition).

Let k (s,t) be a funtion of two

variables s and t, where s is a
parameter independent to t. the
funtion f(s) defined by the Integral
is called the Integral Transform of
the funtion F(t) and is denoted by
T{F(t)}.
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17


f(s)=
k(s,
t)
F(t)
dt
-

The funtion k (s,t) is called the Kernel

of the transformation.

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Laplace Transform (Definition)

k(s,t)=

f(s)=

for t< 0

e-st for t 0

-st

F(t) dt

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Example :- Find the Laplace transform

of the function F(t)=1
Sol.
L{F(t)}=
L{1}=

-st

e
F(t)
dt
0

-st

e
.
1dt
0

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e
= -s

-st

= 1/s , s> 0

Here the conditions s>0 is nesecry,

since the Integral is convergent for
s>0 and divergent for s<= 0.
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Example:- Find L{tn}, n is +ve

integer .
Sol. We have
L{F(t)}=
L{ }=
tn

e F(t) dt
-st

e .t dt
II-st nI

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e
t -s
n.

-st

e
( nt . -s )dt
n-1

-st

(Integrating by Parts)

n e-st tn-1 dt
= 0+ s
AM 6145 17
L
40

OF

23
OF
25

Proceeding similarly, we get

n!
L{tn}= sn 0 e-st dt

n!
sn
L{t }=
n

e
-s

-st

n!

,s>o

s AM 6145 L
n+1
40

17

OF

24
OF
25

Example :- Find
Sol. L{e+at} =

e-{s+a)t
-(s+a)

L{e+at}

-st
+at

e
.
e
dt
0

= e-{s+a}t dt

1
s-a > 0
= S+a
i.e s > a
0
AM 6145 17
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

Example :- Find L {sin at}.

Sol. We have
L{F(t)}=
L{sin at}=

-st

e
F(t) dt
0

-st

e
.sin at dt
0

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

e
(-s
sin
at
a
cos
at)
2
2
(s +a )
-st

since

eax sin bx dx =

eax
[
a
sin
bx
b
cos
ax
]
=
(a2 + b2)
a ,s>0
=
s2 + a2
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

Example :- Find L { cos at }

Sol. L {cos at} =

e-st. cos at dt
0

e
(-s
cos
at
a
sin
at)
2
2
(s +a )
-st

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

0
3
OF
25

a ,s>0
s2 + a2

ax
e
Since eax cos bx dx = 2 2
a +b
{a cos bx + b sin bx}

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Theorem:- The Laplace transformation

is a linear transforrmation i.e
L{a1 F1(t)+a2 F2(t)}
= a1 L{f1(t)} = a2{F2(t)}
L
OF
where a1,a2 AM
are6145
constant.
18

40

5
OF
25

Proof : we have
L{F(t)}=

-st

e
F(t) dt
0

L{a1 F1(t)+a2 F2(t)}

= 0 e-st .{a1 F1(t)+a2 F2(t)} dt

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

= a1 0 e-st F1(t) dt + a2 0 e-st F2(t) dt

= a1 L{f1(t)} = a2{F2(t)}
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

7
OF
25

Example :- Find L{cosh at}

Sol. L{cosh at} = L{

eat +e-at
2

= 1/2 L{eat} + 1/2 L{e-at}

1 1 + 1 1
=
2 s-a
2 s+a
s
= 2 2 ,s>|a|
s -a
AM 6145 L
OF
18

40

8
OF
25

Example :- Find L{ sinh at }

eat +e-at
Sol. L{ sinh at } = L
2
= 1/2 L{eat} - 1/2 L{e-at}
1 1 - 1 1
=
2 s-a
2 s+a
s
= 2 2 ,s>|a|
s -a
AM 6145 L
OF
18

40

9
OF
25

Laplace Transform of Some

Elementory Functions
F(t)

L{F(t)}
1
,s
>
0
s

1
tn

n!

(n is +ve integer)
AM 6145 18
L
40

n+1
OF

,s > 0
10
OF
25

Laplace Transform of Some

Elementory Functions
F(t)

L{F(t)}
1
,s
>
0
s-a

eat
Sin at

a
,s
>
0
s2 + a 2
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

11
OF
25

Laplace Transform of Some

Elementory Functions
F(t)
cos at
sinh at

L{F(t)}
s
,s
>
0
s2 + a 2
a
2 2 ,s > | a |
s -a
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

Laplace Transform of Some

Elementory Functions
F(t)

L{F(t)}

cosh at

s
,s
>
|
a
|
s2 - a 2
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

13
OF
25

Example :- Find L{(t2 + 1)2}

Sol. We have
L{(t + 1) } = L{t + 1 + 2t }
2

=L{t }+L{1}+2L{t }
4

2.2!
4!
1
=
+
+
s3
s3
s
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

14
OF
25

4
24
1
=
+
+
s3
s3
s
24+s4+4s2
=
s5
s4+4s2 + 24
,
s>0
=
s5
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

15
OF
25

First translation or shifting

theorem
Theorem . If L{F(t)} = f(s) when s > ,
then L{eat F(t)} = f(s-a), s> a
i.e if f(s) is Laplace transforms of F(t),
then f(s-a) is the Laplace transform of
t
e F(t).
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

16
OF
25

Second translation or shifting

theorem
Theorem.

and

If L{F(t) = f(s)

G(t) =

F(t-a), t>a
0 , t<a

Then L{G(t)} = e-asf(s)

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

17
OF
25

Change of scale property

Theorem. If L{F(t)} =f(s)
then L{F(at)}=
AM 6145 18
L
40

f(s/a)
OF

18
OF
25

Example :- Find L{et cos2 t}

cos
2t
+1
Sol. We have L{cos2 t}= L
2
1
= 2 [L{cos 2t} + L{1}]
1 s
1
=2 2 +
s +4 s
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

19
OF
25

1 s
1
= 2 2 + =f(s)
s +4 2s
From first shifting theorem
L{et cos2 t} = f(s-1)
1 s-1
1
=2
+
2
(s-1) +4 2(s-1)
1 s-1
1
=2 2
+
s -2s+5 2(s-1)
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

20
OF
25

Example :- Applying change of scale

property, obtain the Laplace transform
of sinh 3t.
Sol. We have
L{sinh t } =

1
s2+1

= f(s)

1
1
1
L{sinh 3t}= 3 (s/3)2-1 = s2-9
AM 6145 L
OF
18

40

21
OF
25

Example :- Applying change of scale

property, find L{cos 5t}.
1
Sol. L{cos t } = 2 = f(s), s > 0
s -1
1 s/5
L{cos 5t}= 5 (s/5)2+1
s
,s>0
= 2
s +25
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

22
OF
25

Laplace Transforms of
Derivatives.
Laplace Transform of the
derivative of F(t).
Theorem. L{F(t)} = s L{F(t)} - F(0)
Proof. L{F(t)} =

e-st.F(t) dt

AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

23
OF
25

= [ e-st . F (t) ] - 0 -s e-st F(t) dt

= 0 - F(0) + s 0 e F(t) dt
-st

= -F(0) + sL {F(t)}
= sL {F(t)} - F(0). Proved
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

24
OF
25

Laplace Transforms of the

nth order Derivative of F(t).
Theorem. L{Fn(t)}
n
n-1
n-2
n-1
= s L{F(t)}- s F(0)-s F(0).F (0)
Proof. We know that
L{F(t)}= s L {F(t)} - F(0)
AM 6145 18
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

Applying 2nd orrder derivative F(t),

we have
L{s(t)}= s L {F(t)} - F(0)
=s[s L {F(t)} - F(0)] - F(0)
=s L {F(t)} - sF(0)] - F(0)
2

AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

Again applying to the third order

derivatavi F(t), we have
L{F(t)}=sL{F(t)}-F(0)
=s[s2L{F(t)}-sF(0)-F(0)]-F(0)
3
2
=s L{F(t)}-s F(0)-sF(0)-F(0)
Proceeding smilarly, we have
L Fn{(t)}=snL{F(t)}-sn-1F(0)-sn-2F(t)
.. Fn-1(0)
Proved
AM 6145 L
OF
OF 25
19

40

Multiplication by t
Theorem. If L{F(t)}=F(s), then
L{tF(t)}=-f(s)
Proof. we have

f(s)=L{F(t)}=0 e-stF(t) dt
d

f(s)=ds 0 e-stF(t) dt
AM 6145 L
OF
19

40

3
OF
25

= -0

(By
Leibuitzs
)
ds{e F(t)} dt
-st

=-0
=-0

te F(t) dt
-st

e-st {F(t)} dt = -L {tF(t)}

Thus {tF(t)}= -f(s). Proved

AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Multiplication by t

Theorem. If L{F(t)=f(s), then

n
d
L{tn F(t) = (-1)n f(s)
where n=1, 2,
n
ds
3
Proof:- We shall prove this theorem by
Mathemtical induction. We know that
1 d
L{tF(t)=(-1)
f(s)
dsAM 6145 L OF
OF 25
5

40

i.e the theoremis true for n=1

Now assume that the theorem is true
for a particular valve of n and p. then,
we have
Pp
P
d
L{t F(t)} =(-1)p
ds
f(s)
P
d

p
-st P
p
ds
f(s)
0 e t F(t)dt=(-1)
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

Now differintiating both sides w.r.t s,

we have
d -st P
P+1
p
d

e
t
F(t)dt=(-1)
f(s)
0
ds
dsp+1

P+1
0 d {e-sttP F(t)dt}=(-1)p df(s)
ds
dsp+1
(By Leibnitzs rule)
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

7
OF
25

P+1
d
-0 e-sttP+1 F(t)dt=(-1)p p+1 f(s)
ds
P+1

d
f(s)
-st
P+1
p+1
F(t)}dt=(-1)
0 e .{ t
dsp+1
P+1
d
f(s)
P+1
p+1
L.{ t F(t)}=(-1)
dsp+1
Therefore, theorem is true for
every Positive Integral value of n.
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

8
OF
25

Division by t
Theorem: If L{F(t)} = f(s), then

1
L t F(t) = s f(x) dx
Lt 1 F(t) exists.
Provided t0 t
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

9
OF
25

1
Proof : Let G(t) = F(t)
t
F(t) = G(t)

L{F(t)} = L{tG(t)}
d
= - ds L{G(t)}
d
f(s)= - ds L{G(t)}
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

10
OF
25

Now integrating oth sides w.r.t. s,

we have
s

L{G(t)} = - f(s) ds

= s f(x) dx

1
or L t F(t) = s s(x) dx
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

Proved.
11
OF
25

Example :- Evaluate L{t}

Sol. We have
L{F(t)} = s L{F(t)-F(0) .. (1)
Let F(t) = t
F(t)=1
and

F(c)=0
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

12
OF
25

From (1), we have

L{1}=sL{t}-0
1
L{t}= s L{1}
1
1
1
.
L{t}= s s = 2 , s > 0.
s
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

13
OF
25

Example:- Find L{t2 e2t}

Sol.

1 ,s>2
s-2
2
2 2t
2 d
2t
L{t e }= (-1)
L{e }
ds2
d2 1
2
=
=
3
2 s-2
(s-2)
ds
L{e2t} =

AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

14
OF
25

sinh t
Example :- Find L
t
Sol. Let F(t) = sinh t
Lt
F(t)
Lt
sinh
t
Now
=
=
1
t 0 t
t 0 t
1
Since L{sinh t} = 2 = f(s)
s -1

sinh t
L t
= 0 f(x) dx
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

15
OF
25

=s

1 dx
x2-1
1
x-1
log
=
x+1
2

1
(s-1)
log
Ans
s+1
2
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

16
OF
25

Table of Laplace
theorems
Operation

F(t)

L{F(t)} = f(s)

Linearity
property

a1F1(t)+a2F2(t)

a1 L{F1(t)}+a2 L{F2(t)}

First
translation

eatF(t)

f(s-a)

AM 6145 L
40

OF

17
OF
25

Table of Laplace
theorems
Operation
Second
translation

Change of scale
property

F(t)

L{F(t)} = f(s)

F(t-a), t > a
G(t)= 0 , t < a

e-asf(s)
1

F(at)

AM 6145 19
L
40

f(s/a)
a

OF

18
OF
25

Table of Laplace
theorems
Operation

F(t)

Differentiation
theorem

F(t)

L{F(t)} = f(s)
S f(s)-F(0)
n-1

sn f(s)- sn-1-r Fr(0)

Fn(t)

r=0

Multiplication
theorem

t F(t)
n
t
F(t)
AM 6145 L
40

OF

-f(s)
n
d
(-1)n dsn OF
f(s)25
19

Table of Laplace
theorems
Operation

F(t)

Division
theorem

Fundamental
theorem for
periodic functions

L{F(t)} = f(s)

(x)dx

F(t)
t

T st

e F(t) dt
0

L{F(t)}=

1-e-sT
F(t) is periodic function of period T
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

20
OF
25

1
Example :- Find L s
-1

1
Sol. Since L{1} = s

L { s }= 1
-1

AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

C.T.M
21
OF
25

Example :- Find L-1

Sol. We have

1
s-a

1
L{1} = s-a
1

L { s-a}= e
-1

AM 6145 L
40

at

OF

C.T.M
22
OF
25

Example :- Find L-1

positive integer
Sol. We have
n!
n
L{t } =
n+1

n+1

, n is

L { sn+1}=
-1

AM 6145 19
L
40

tn
n!
OF

C.T.M
23
OF
25

Example :- Find L
Sol. We have
L{cos at} =

s
2
2
s +a

-1

s +a
2

L-1{ s = cos at C.T.M

2
2
s +a

AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

24
OF
25

Example :- Find L

-1

Sol. We have
L{sin at} =

s +a

s +a
2

L-1{ 1 = 1 sin at C.T.M

2
2
a
s +a
AM 6145 19
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

Example :- Find L

-1

Sol. We have

s
2 2
s -a

s
L{cosh at} = 2 2
s -a

L-1{ s = cosh at C.T.M

2 2
s -a

AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

Example :- Find L

-1

Sol. We have

1
2 2
s -a

a
L{sinh at} = 2 2
s -a

L-1{ 1 = 1 sinh at C.T.M

2 2
a
s -a

AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

Table of Inverse Laplace

Transforms
f(s)

L-1{f(s)}=F(t)

1
s

s-a
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

at

3
OF
25

Table of Inverse Laplace

Transforms
f(s)
1
s

n+1

L-1{f(s)}=F(t)
tn
n!

,n is +ve Integer

s
s2 + a 2

cos at
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Table of Inverse Laplace

Transforms
f(s)

L-1{f(s)}=F(t)

1
s2 + a 2

1 sin at
a

s
s2 - a2

cosh at
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

5
OF
25

Table of Inverse Laplace

Transforms
f(s)

L-1{f(s)}=F(t)

1
s2 - a2
1
s

n+1

1 sinh at
a
tn
(n+1)!

,n > -1
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

6
OF
25

Example:- Find L

Sol.

2s+1
s(s+1)

-1

-1

2s+1
s(s+1)

s+(s+1)
= s(s+1)

2s+1 = L-1 s+(s+1)

s(s+1)
s(s+1)
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

7
OF
25

= L

-1

=L

-1

s
-1 (s+1)
L
+
s(s+1)
s(s+1)
1
-1 1
L
+
s+1
s

= e-t +t
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

8
OF
25

First translation or Shifting

Theorem
If L-1{f(s)} = F(t), then
L {f(s-a)} = e F(t)
-1

at

= eat L-1{f(s)}
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

9
OF
25

Proof. We have

f(s)= e-st . F(t) dt

f(s-a)= e-(s-a)t . F(t) dt

= e-st .{eat F(t)} dt

= L {eat F(t)}
-1
at
at -1
L {f(s-a)}=e F(t)=e L {f(s)}
AM 6145 L
40

OF

10
OF
25

Change of Scale
Property
Theorem. If L-1 {f(s) = F(t), then
L {f(as) =
-1

AM 6145 20
L
40

( )

1
t
aF a
OF

11
OF
25

Proof . We have
f(s) = 0 e-st F(t) dt

f(as) = 0 e-ast F(t) dt

= 1 0 e F( x) dx
a
a

-sx

AM 6145 L
40

OF

12
OF
25

( )

1 -st
t
f(as) = a 0 e F a dt
1
=aL

{ ( )}
t
F a

( )

t
1
L-1{f(as)}= a F a
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

Proved
13
OF
25

Example:- Find L-1

Sol. L-1

6s
s2+2s-8
= 4L-1

6s
s2+2s-8

= L-1

4 + 2
s+4 s-2

1 + 2L-1 1
s+4
s+2

= 4e-4t + 2e2t
AM 6145 L
40

OF

14
OF
25

1
Example :- Find L-1
(s+1)(s-2)
Sol. L-1

1
(s+1)(s-2)

1
first solve
(s+1)(s-2)
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

15
OF
25

By Partial fraction and then take

Inverse Laplace Transform
1
-1
1
=
+
3(s+1) 3(s-2)
(s+1)(s-2)
L-1

1
-1
1
-1
+
L
=
3(s+1) 3(s-2)
(s+1)(s-2)
AM 6145 L
40

OF

16
OF
25

-1 e-t + 1 e2t ( By first translation)

= 3
3
1 (e2t - e-t)
=3

AM 6145 20
L
40

Ans.

OF

17
OF
25

Example:- Find L-1

Sol.

1
(2s+3)

1
1 -1
1
=
L
1/2
(s+3/2)
2
(2s+3)

1 e-3/2t L-1
=
2

1
S1/2

AM 6145 20
L
40

(By first translation)

OF

18
OF
25

1 e-3t/2 t1/2-1
=
2
1/2
1 e-3t/2 t-1/2
=
2

1 e-3t/2.
=
2t
AM 6145 L
40

Ans.
OF

19
OF
25

Inverse Laplace transform of

derivatives:
Theorem,

If L-1 {f(s)} = F(t), then

L-1{fn(s)} = L-1
F(t),

[d

dsn

f(s) = (-1)n tn

n= 1, 2, 3, ...
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

20
OF
25

Proof. We have ,
n
d
L {tn F(t)} = (-1)n dsn f(s)

= (-1)n f(s)
L-1 {fn(s)} = L-1

dn
n n
f(s)
=
(-1)
t
F(t).
n
ds

AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

21
OF
25

Multiplication by power of s
Theorem. If L {f(s)} = F(t)
-1

and F(0) = 0
then L {s f(s)} = F(t)
-1

AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

22
OF
25

Multiplication by power of s
Proof. We have ,
L {F(t)} = sL{F(t)}-F(0)
= s f(s)

L-1{sf(s)} = F(t)
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

23
OF
25

Division by powers of s :
Theorem . If F(t) is sectionally
continuous and of exponential order a
such that Lt F(t) exist then for
ts t
s>a,
L

-1

f(s)

F(x)
dx
=
0
s
t

AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

24
OF
25

Proof. Let G(t) = 0 F(x) dx

t

Then G(t) = F(t) and G(0) = 0

L{G(t)} = s L {G(t)}- G(0)
= s L {G(t)}
f(s) = s L {G(t)}

f(s)
L{G(t)} = s
AM 6145 20
L
40

OF

25
OF
25

f(s)
=
G(t)
s

Hence L-1

= 0 F(x) dx
t

Proved.
AM 6145 21
L
40

OF

1
OF
25

Example :- Find L

-1

1
(s-a)3

2
1
2
d
Sol. Since 2
=
ds (s-a)
(s-a)3
2
1
1
1
d

3 =
(s-a)
2 ds2 (s-a)
AM 6145 21
L
40

OF

2
OF
25

Hence L

-1

2
1
1
1
d
-1
3 =L
(s-a)
2 ds2 (s-a)

2
1
1
d
-1
= L
ds2 (s-a)
2

1 (-1)2 t2 . L-1 1
=2
(s-a)
AM 6145 21
L
40

OF

3
OF
25

1 t2 . L-1 1
=2
(s-a)
1
= t2 . eat
2
Ans.
AM 6145 21
L
40

OF

4
OF
25

Example:- Find L-1

Sol. L-1

s+1
(s2+2s+6)2

s+1
(s2+2s+6)2

s+1
[(s+1)2+5]2

= L-1
s
-t -1
=e L
(s2+5)2
1
d
-t -1 -1
2
=e L
(s
+5)
ds
2

{ ( )}

AM 6145 21
L
40

OF

5
OF
25

-1
= e (-1)-1.t. L-1
2
-t

1
2
2
s +(5)

1
1
sin 5t
.t.
=e .
2 5
-t

1
=
.t e-t sin 5t
2 5
AM 6145 21
L
40

Ans.
OF

6
OF
25

Importance of applied
Mathematics
Applied mathematics form the
backbone of engineering students.
Basic elements of algebra,
trigonometry, coordinate gemotery
have been dealt in applied
mathematics-I.

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

1 of 25

594

Differential calculus and integral

calculus have been included in this
course. This will develop analytical
abilities to apply in engineering
field and will provide continuing
educational base to the students.

595

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

2 of 25

DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

596

Deffination
An equation involving derivatives or
differentials with or without the
independent and dependent
variables is called a differential
equation.

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

4 of 25

597

Deffination of oridinary
Differential Equation

A differential equation involving only one

independent variable is called an oridinary

differential equation.

dteit, Punjab L1 ofAM

40 6145 L
40

5 of 25
OF

OF 25

Illustrations
(i) dy/dx = 3x2
(ii) ydx-xdy=0
(iii) 4(dy/dx)2 - x2=0
(iv) d2y/dx2 + 4y=0
(v) (d2y/dx2)2-36x2=0

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

6 of 25

599

(vi) y=dy/dx+a 1+(dy/dx)2

(vii) d3y/dx3 = 8 y these are all
differential equations

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

7 of 25

600

Defination of order
The order of a diff. eq. is the order of
the highest order derivative or diff.
appering in the eq. Thus the diff.
eqs. (i) (ii) (iii) & (vi) are of the
first order. (iv) & (v) are of the
second order & (vii) is of third
order.

dteit, Punjab L1 of 40

8 of 25

601

Deffination of degree of diff. eq.

The degree of a diff. eq. is the degree
of the higest order derivative or
diff. when the derevatives are free
from radicals and nagetive indecies.
Thus the diff. eqs. (i) (ii) (iv) &
(vii) are of the Ist degree & (iii) (v)
& (vi) are of the IInd degree.

602

Definitions
A

differentialequation is said
to be linear if the unknown
function and all

603

the derivatives involved in the

equation occur only in the
first degree
Thedifferentialequations (i),
(ii),(iv) and (vii) are linear,
but (iii),(v) and (vi) are non
linear. A linear differential

604

equation is always of first

degree, but the converse is
not
always
true.
For
example, the differential
equation
d2y/dx2+(dy/dx)2+y=0 is
not linear, but its degree is
1
605

A solution of a differential
equation is a function which
satisfis the eqs. and does
not involve any derivative or
differential. In
tegrating
both sides of (i) w.r.t.x,we
get y=x3+C which is the
solution of the differential
equation
(i)
and
this
function satisfies (i).

606

Formation of
Differential Equations
To from a differential
equation from
an equation containing x, y
and an
arbitray constant, say a we
differentiate both sides of
the equation w.r.t.x and
eliminate a between the

607

For example, let us consider

the equation
y=ax+2 ..(I)
where a is an arbitrary
constant.
Equation
(1)
represents a family
of
straight
lines
passing
through the point (0,2)
608

Differentiating both sides of

(1) w.r.t x we get
dy / dx = a (2)
Eliminating a between (1)
and (2),we get
y= x. dy/dx+2
(3)
609

which
is
a
differential
equation of
first order and of first degree.
(I) is the solution of (3). for,
(1) satisfies (3)

610

Rule to from a
differential equation
:General and Particular
Solution
1. Let f (x,y,c)=0..(1) be a
relation containing x,y and
an arbitrary
constant c. Differentiating (1)
w.r.t x we get an equation
involving
611

x,y,yand
c,
say

(x,y,y,c)=o..(2)
Eliminating c between (1)
and (2), we get a differential
equation of first order
involvingx,y and dy/dx (or
y) and (1) is the solution of
this differential equation.

612

2 .Let f (x,y,c1,c2)=0.(2)
be a relation containing x,y
anad two
arbitrary constants c1 and c2
Differentiating
succession

(2)twice

in

w.r.t x we get two equations

Eliminating

c1

and

c2

613

two equations and (2) we

shall get a differential
equation of the second
order. (2) is the solution of
this second order differential
equation.
Similarly, we may consider
relation involving three or
more arbitrary constant and
obtain the corresponding
differential equation of third

614

From the above discussion it

is evident that the general
solution of a differential
equation of (i) first order
contains
one
arbitrary
constant, (ii) second order
contains two independent
arbitrary constants ,and so
on.
615

Thus
the
number
of
independent
arbitrary
constants in the general
solution of a differential
equation is equal to the
order of the equation ,The
general
solution
of
a
differential equation is also
called the complete integral
or complete primitive of the
equation.

616

Differential Equations arising in

Geometrical
Problems

Exam.: Find the differential

equation of the family of
circles which pass through
the origin
and
whose
centres lie on the x-axis.
Sol. If a be the radius of a
circle, then its centre is the
point (a,o) and its equation
is

617

(x-a)2+y2=a2
or
x2+y22ax=0..(I)
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get

618

2x+ 2y . dy/dx-2a =0 or
x+y.dy/dx=a..(2)
Eliminating a from (1) and
(2), we get
x2+y2-2x.(x+y.dy/dx)=0

619

or,
-x2+y2-2xy.dy/dx=0 ,or,
y2=x2+2xy.dy/dx
which
is
the
required
differential equation.

620

Exam.: Form the differental

equation of the family of
curves
given
by
c(y+c)2=x2.
Sol. The equation of the
family of curves is
c(y+c)2=x2 ..(i)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t.x we
get
2c(y+c).dy/dx=2x,
or, c(y+c).dy/dx=x(2)

621

or,c(y+c)2/(y+c).dy/dx=x
or
x2/(y+c).dy/dx=x
or
x.dy/dx=(y+c)
or, c= x.dy/dx-y
Substituting this value of c in
(2), we get

622

or
(x
dy/dx
-y)
x2
(dy/dx)2=x2,
(x.dy/dx-y) (dy/dx)2 = 1
x. (dy/dx-y) ( y+x.dy/dxy)2=x2
whide
is
the
required
differential equation

623

Exam. : For a particle moving

in a straight line, the
distances from a fixed point
on the line described in any
time t is given by s=a cos
nt+b sin nt where a and b
are arbitrary constants. Find
the differential equation of
motion of the particle.
624

Sol. We have s=a cos nt+b

sin nt..(I)
Differentiating w.r.t. t,we get
ds
--= -an sin nt + bn cos
nt
dt
Differentiating again w.r.t. t,
we get
d2s

625

= -n2(a cos nt+b sin nt)

or, d2s
----dt2

= -n2s,

which
is
the
required
differential
equation of motion of the
particle.

626

Example
The population of a country
grows at the rate of 3% per
year. Form a differential
equation showing the rate
of growth of the population.
Sol. Let x be the number of
individuals in the population
at the end of t years. Then x
is a function of t.
627

Evidently, the rate of change

of x with respect to t is equal
to 3% of x.
i.e dx/dt =3/100 .X x or
dx/dt= 3x/100
Which
is
the
required
differential equation

628

Exam.:
A
savings
bank
account pays
6%
interest
per
year,
compounded
continuously. In addition, the
income
from another investment is
credited
to the account at the rate of
Rs.300
per
year.
Form
the

629

Sol. let x be the amount in Rs.

in the account after t years.
Then x is a function of t and
we have dx/dt = 6% of
x+300. or dx/dt = 6/100 X x
+300 or dx/dt = 3x/50+300
which is the required diff.
eq.
representing
the
account.
630

Exam.: If a spherical rain drop

evaporates

at

rate

proportional to its surface

area,form

differential

equation indicating the rate

of change of the radius of
the rain drop.

631

Sol. Let r be the radius(in

mm.) of the rain drop at the
end of t seconds.
If v be the volume of the rain
drop and S its surface area,
then
V = 4/3 nr3 and S=4nr2
632

Since
the
rain
drop
evaporates,
its
radius
decreases as t increases.

The rate of change of r

must be negative.

633

By the given condition,

dy/dt =ks or 4/3 n 3r2 dr/dt
= k4nr2 or 4nr2 dr/dt =
-k4nr2 because dr/dt is
negative or dr/dt = -k
Which is the required diff. eq.

634

Exam.:

For

substance

a
the

certain
rate

of

change of vapour pressure P

with respect to temperature
T

is

vapour

proportional
pressure

to

the
and

inversely proportional to the

square of the temperature.

635

differential
equation
expressing
the
given
conditions, and verify that
P=Ae-k/T,where A is an
arbitrary constant, satisfies
the differential equation.
Sol. The rate of change of
vapour pressure P w.r.t.
temperature

636

By the given conditions, we

have
dP /dt = k. P/T2..(i)
Where k is the constant of
proportionality.
2nd part: Putting P=Ae-k/T
in(1), we get

637

d/ dT (Ae-k/T)=k.Ae-k/T/T2
or Ak / T2 e -k/T =Ak/T2 e -k/T
which is true.
Hence P=Ae -k/T satisfies the
differntial equation(1).

638

Exam. : show that v=A/r+B

Where A & B are arbitrary
constants satisfies the diff.
eq. d2y/dr2 + 2/r . dV/dr=0 .
Sol. we have V = A/r +B(i)
diff. 1st with respect to r we
get dV/dr= - A/r2 or r2 dV/dr
+A=0..(2)
639

diff. again w.r.t. r we get r2

d2V/dr2+2rdV/dr+0=0
deviding by r2 we get
d2V/dr2+2/r.dV/dr=0..(iii).
Hence V=A/r +B satisfies
the
differential
equation (3)
Exam.:
(2) Show that y=4
sin 3x is a solution
of the
differential equation
2

640

Sol. We have y=4 sin 3x.

(i)
and
d2y/dx2+9y=0
(ii)
*
dy/dx = 4.3. cos 3x=12
cos 3x
* d2y/dx2= -12.3 sin 3x=-36
sin 3x.
subsituting these values in

641

Differential equation of
First Order and First
Degree
Adifferential equation of the
first order and of the first
degree may
be written as
Mdx+Ndy=0..(i)
where M and N are functions
of x and y or constants.

642

The general solution of (1)

contains only one arbitrary
constant and when it is put
in(1), the equation becomes
an identity.
We shall now discuss the
methods of solving some
special types of differential
equations of the first order

643

Separation of Variables
If

the differential equation

Mdx+Ndy=0 can be express
in the form
f(x)d(x)+g(y)=0.(i)
or
dy/dx =f(x).g(y)
(2)

644

where f(x) is a function of x

and g(y) is a function of y,
then it can be solved easily
by integrating each term.
Thus integrating each term
of (1), we get the general
solution
f(x) dx+g(y) dy=c,

645

where c is
constant.

an

From (2),
dy/gy
Integrating
dy/g(y) = f (x)dx+c

arbitrary

=f(x)dx.

646

Illustrative Examples
i) dy
--dx

=3x2+2

Sol. (i) we have

dy
---- =3x2+2
dx
dy=(3x2+2) dx

647

or,
in which the variables are
separated.
Integrating both sides,we get
{dy=}(3x2+2)dx+C
or,
y=3.x3/3 +2x+C, or,
y=x3+2x+C
648

which is the required solution

Exam. : Solve dy/dx=sin x-x

Sol. We have dy/dx=sin x-x
or, dy=(sin x-x) dx
[Note that the variables are
separated]

649

Integrating both sides,we get

dy= (sin x-x) dx +c
or y={sin x dx-}x dx +c

650

y= -cos x-x2/2+c Hence

requierd sol. is y= - cos x 1/2x2+c

651

Ex.2 x2 dy/dx =2
sol.
(i) We have x2 dy/dx
=2(i)

From (1), x2 dy = 2dx, or dy

=2.dx/x2
652

Integrating both sides , we

y=2 {dx/x2 + C =2 . ( - 1/x )

+C
or y= -2/x + c which is the
required
x
solution of (1)

653

Exam.: solve dy/dx= (ex+1)y

Sol.
we have dy/dx =
(ex+1)y.(i)
or dy/y =(ex+1) dx , in which
the
varriables are separated
Integrating both side,
we get
654

log y =({ex+1}) dx +C
log y=ex +x +C, which is the
required solution of the
differential equation (1)
Exam.: solve (1-y) x dy/dx
+(1+x)y=0
.
655

Sol.
We
have
(1-y)
xdy/dx+(1+x)y=0(i)
(1-y)x dy+x(1+x) ydx=0
To separate the varriables,
let us divide both sides by
xy ; then
(1-y)
(1+x)
---dy + -----dx=0
,
y
x

656

or (1/y-1)dy+(1/x+1)dx=0
integrating both sides, we get
{(1/y-1)dy+{(1/x+1)dx=c
or, log y-y+log x+x=C
which is the required solution
of (1)

657

Ex.
solve the following differential
equation:
(i) (1+cos x)dy =(1-cos x)dx
Sol. (i)
we have (1+cos x)dy=(1-cos
x)dx

658

dy=(1cosx/1+cosx)dx=2sin2x/2/2cos2x/2dx
=
tan2x/2dx
or dy=(sec2 x/2 -1)dx

659

Integrating both sides , we

get
y={sec2 x/2 dx-} 1dx+C
=2.tan x/2- x+C
Which is the required sol. of
given eq.
660

Exam. solve
dy/dx=
-sin x . sin y

cos x.cos y

661

Sol. cos x . cos y dy/dx= -sin

x sin y(i)
or cos x cos y dy= -sin x sin y
dx
or cos y/ sin y dy= - sinx/cosx
dx
Integrating both sides we get
log sin y =log cos x +log C
[.
.
Numerator
is
the
derivative
of
the

662

log sin y= log (C cos x)

.. sin y =C cos x which is
the required solution of the
differential equation (1)

663

EX. solve
tan y dx+sec2 y tan x dy=0
Sol. we have tan y dx+sec2
y tan x dy=0..(i)
To separate the
varriables , we divide both
sides of (1) by
tan y . tan x and obtain
dx /tanx + sec2 y/tan y dy
=0

664

or,
cot x dx+sec2y/tan y
dy=0
Integrating both sides , we
get
log sin x+log tan y=log C
or,
log (sin x tan y) = log C
or,
sin x tan y=C , which is
the required solution of the
differential equation (1)

665

Ex , Solve each of
following equation..
(1)
y dx-x dy=xy dx.

(2)

dy
----=1+x+y+xy
dx
dx
dy

the

666

sol. We have y dx -x dy=xy

dx..(i)
To separate the variables, we
divide both
sides by xy and obtain
dx/x - dy/y=dx
integrating both sides, we get
667

{dx/x-{dy/y =x+C
or, log x- log y=x+C,
or, log x /y = x+c
which is the required solution
of (1)

668

(ii)
We
have
dy/dx
=1+x+y+xy
or,
dy/dx
=1+x+y(1+x)=(1+x)(1+y)
or, dy=(1+x)(1+y) dx,
or, dy/1+y =(1+x)dx

669

Integrating both sides, we get

{1/1+y dy= { (1+x)dx+C
or, log 1+y =x+x2/2 +c
which is the required
solution of the
differential equation

670

(iii) We have dy /dx=e x+y+x2ey

or,
dy/dx =ex .ey +x2 ey =ey(ex+x2)
or, dy/e y=(ex +x2)dx, or, e-y dy=(ex+x2)dx

671

Integrating both sides, we get

{ e-ydy ={(ex+x2)dx+C
or e -y /-1 = ex+x3/3+c or ex +ey+1/3 x3+c=0
which is the required solution
of differential equation(1)

672

Ex 5. Solve the following differential

equations:
(1) (1+x) (1+y2)dx+(1+y)(1+x2)dy=
0.
(2) (x2y-x2)dx+(xy2-y2)dy=0

673

Sol.(1)
we have
(1+x)(1+y2)dx+(1+y)
(1+x2)dy=0(i)
To separate the variables we divided
both sides by (1+x2)(1+y2) and
obtain

674

(1+x) dx/(1+x2)+ (1+y)/(1+y2)dy=0

Integrating both sides we get
{ (1+x)/(1+x2)dx+{(1+y)/
(1+y2)dy=c
or {1/1+x2dx+{xdx/1+x2+
{dy/1+y2+{ydy/1+y2=c

675

or tan -1 x+1/2 log (1+x2)+tan-1 y+1/2

log (1+y2)=c
or tan -1x+tan-1 y+1/2 log [(1+x2)
(1+y2)]=c

676

677

Sol IInd we have (x2y-x2)dx+

(xy2-y2)dy=0
x2(y-1)dx+y2(x-1)dy=0
To separate the varriables we
divide both sides by the (y1) (x-1) and obtain.

678

x2 /x-1dx+y2/y-1dy=0
or (x2-1 +1/x-1)dx + (y21+1/y-1)dy=0
or (x+1+1/x-1)dx+(y+1+1/y1)dy=0

679

Integrating both sides we get

x2
/2+x+log
|
x-1|
+y2/2+y+log|y-1|=C

680

or 1/2(x2+y2)+x+y+log |(x1)(y-1)|=C
Which is the required solution
of the differential equation
(1)

681

Solve : x -/1- y2 dx +y -/ 1-x2

dy =0
sol. we have
x-/1-y2 dx+y -/1-x2 dy =0.....
(i)
or xdx/-1-x2+ydy/-1-y2=0

682

[ dividing by -/1-y2 . -/1-x2 ]

Integrating,xdx/-/1x2+ydy/-/1-y2=c.....(ii)
Where C is a arbitrary
constant.
In the first integral, put 1x2=z2;
then -2x dx=2z dz , or xdx= z dz and

683

{x dx/-/1-x2={-z dz /z={-dz=z=- -/1-x2

similarly {ydy/-/1-y2=- -/1-y2

684

From(2) ,we get - -/1-x2 - -/ 1y2 =C= -k

where
k = -C
or

-/ 1-x2 +-/ 1- y2 = k

where is the required general

solution
of
the
given
differential equation (1).
685

Ex.
solve : sin x .
dy/dx+y=y2
sol. we have sin x .dy/dx+ y =
y2....(i)
or sin x dy/dx= y2 - y
or (y2-y) dx=sinx dy
or dx/sinx= dy/y2-y
686

or

cosec x dx =dy/ y2 -y

Integrating log | tan x/2

logC= {dy/y2-y

={dy/(y-1/2)2-(1/2)2
or log c tan x y2=1/2.1/2 log
y-1/2-1/2/y-1/2+1/2=logy1/y
c tan x/2=y-1/y which is the

687

Ex.The marginal cost of

manufacturing a certain
article is given by
C(x) = dc/dx=3 + 0.25x

Find the total cost function

C(x) , given that C(0) = 60.

688

Sol.
We have dc/dx =3
+0.25x....(i)

dC =(3+0.25 x) dx
Integrating both sides , we
get
689

given that C(0) =60 i.e , C(x)

=60 when x=0
. . 60 =k i.e k=60
Hence from (2) the total cost
function C(x) is given by
C(x) =3x +0.125x2 +60.
-----------

690

Ex. A curve passes through

the point
( 5, 3) and at any point (x, y)
on it, the product of the
ordinate is equal to the
abscissa. Find the equation
of the curve and identify it.
Sol .
At any point (x,y) of a curve
691

Slope =dy/dx, ordinate =y

and
abscissa= x
by the given condition
dy/dx y=x , or x dx= y dy

692

Integrating both sides , we

get

x2/2=y2/2+c......(i)
Since
this
curve
passes
through the point (5,3)
693

52 /2= 32/2+c
C= 25/2-9/2=16/2=8
Hence from (1) the required
equation of the curve is

694

x2/2= y2/2+8
or x2 =y2+16
or x2 - y2 =16.........(ii)
This equation is of the from
x2 -y2 =a2
which is a
rectangular hyperbola
Hence the curve (2) is a
rectangular hyperbola.
695

Homogenous
equation of first
order and of first
degree

Consider
the
equation.

differential

M dx+ N dy =0.....(i)

696

if

M and N are both

homogenous function of the
same degree in x and y ,
then the equation (1) is said
to be homogenous . We can
express (1) in the form.

697

dy /dx=f(y/x).....(ii)
To solve such an equation we
put y=vx , where v is a
function of x.
Then dy/dx=v + x.dv/dx

698

. . from (1) v+x .dv/dx =f(v)

or

x. dv/dx =f(v)-v

or dx/x = dv/f(v)-v.....(iii)
.
699

Thus variables are separated

and (3) can be easily solved
by direct integration . (See
worked out next examples)
---------

700

Ex. Solve x dy/dx=y+x tan y/x

sol. we have
x dy/dx= y +x tan y/x----(i)
Eq. (i) is homogenious in x
&y
701

put y=vx ; then dy/dx=v +x

dv/dx
from (1) x(v+x dv/dx) =vx +x
tan (vx/x)

or v+x dv/dx =v+tan v

where x # 0

702

or x dv/dx = tan v , or dv/ tan

v =dx/x
integrating log | sin v| = log |
x| +log c = log | Cx |

703

or sin v =Cx
or sin y/x =Cx

Which is the required general

solution of (1).
-----------704

Ex. Solve
(x2-xy)dy=(xy+y2) dx
sol. we have
(x2-xy) dy = (xy+y2)dx......(i)
Differential equation (1) is
homogenous in x and y

705

from (1) we have

dy/dx= xy+y2/x2- xy......(ii)
now put y=vx , then
dy /dx=v+xdv/dx

706

from
(2)
,
v+x.dv/dx=
x.vx+v2x2/x2-x.vx
=
v+v2/1-v
or xdv/dx = v+v2/1-v
-v
=v+v2-v+v2/1-v
=2v2/1-v
707

or (1-v)dv/2v2=dx/x
or dx/x=1/2(1/v2-1/v)dv

708

Integrating logx=1/2(-1/v
-logv)+1/2log C

or 2 log x=- 1/v

-logv +
logc
or log x2 + log v -log c= -1/v
709

or log (vx2/c)= - x/y

or vx2/c = e -x/y
or xy= c e -x/y
Which is the required
solution
------

general

710

Ex . Solve :
(x2+y2) dx -2xy dy=0
given by y=0 , when x=1
sol. we have
(x2+y2) dx-2xy dy =0
or dy/dx=x2+y2/2xy.....(i)
711

put y=vx ; then dy/dx= v +x

dv/dx
from(I)v+xdv/dx=x2+v2x2/2x
2v=1+v2/2v
or x dv/dx = 1+v2/2vv=1+v2-2v2/2v=1-v2/2v
or 2v/1-v2.dv=dx/x,
or -(-2v/1-v2)dv=dx/x

712

Integrating - log (1-v2)=log |x

| - logC
log |1-v2|=-log | x | +log C
log |(1-v2)x | = log C
(1-y2/x2) x = C

713

or x2-y2 =Cx.....(ii)
given y=0 when x=1;
(2), 1=C

from

Hence from (2) , the required

solution is x2 - y2 = x.
-------------

714

Ex. Solve
{x+y cos y/x} dx = x cos
(y/x) dy

sol , we have
715

{x+y cos (y/x)} dx = x cos (y/x) dy

dy
x+y cos (y/x)
or--- = -----------------.........(i)
dx
x cos (y/x)

put y=vx ; then dy/dx = v +x dv/dx

716

x+vx cos (vx/x)

from (1) v+x dv/dx= --------------------x cos (vx/x)
= 1+v cos v / cos v
or v+x dv/dx=sec v+v
or x dv/dx = sec v
or cos v dv= dx/x

717

Integrating both sides we get

{cos v dv = {dx/x + C
sin v=log | x | +C
or sin y/x = log | x | +C
Which is the required solution of
(1)
----------------

718

Ex . Find the equation to the

curve through (1. 0) for
which the slope at any point
(x , y) is
(x2 + y2 )
------------2xy
Sol . For any curve y=f(x) the
slope at any
719

dy
point (x ,y) is ----dx
dy
x2+y2
---- = ---------- ......(i)
dx
2xy
Which is a
homogenous
differential equation of first
order.

720

dy
dv
put y= vx ; then ---- = v +x
---dx
dx
from (1) we get
dv
x2+v2 x2
1+v2
v+x ---- = ------------ = --------

721

dv
1+v2
1-v2
x ---- = -------- - v = --------dx
2v
2v
dx
2v
- 2vdv
---- = -------- dv = - -------x
1-v2
1-v2
Integrating both sides , we
get

722

log |x | = -{-2vdv/1-v2 + log

c
=-log |1-v2|+log c
or log |x|=log |c/1-v2|= log |
cx2/x2-y2|
or cx2/x2-y2=x
or x2 - y2 = Cx
Where C is an arbitrary
constant.

723

since
this
curve
passes
through the point (1.0)
12 - 02 = C . 1
or C=1
Hence from (2) the required
equation of the curve is
x2 - y2 = x

724

Linear equation of first order

A linear equation of first order
with constant coefficients is
of the from
dy
------ + Py = Q......(i)
dx
where P is a constant and Q is
a function of x or a constant
To find the general solution ,
we multiply

725

Bothsides of (1) by epx and

obtain
dy
epx . ---- + Py . epx =Q .epx
dx
d
--- ( y.epx ) =Q .epx
dx

726

[ d/dx ( y.epx ) =qepx ]

Integrating both sides , we
get
y. epx = {Q .epx dx +C
y .= e-px {(Q .epx )dx +C
which is the general sol. of

727

Note:(1)if Q =0 then
general solution is

the

y =C .e-px

728

(ii) Here the factor epx [ or

e{pdx ] is called an
integration factor (I.F) of (1)
I.F of a differential equation is
a factor multiply by the
which the L.H.S and the
R.H.S of the equation can be
easily integrated .
729

Ex. solve dy/dx+ 3y =e2x

sol . we have
e2x .....(i)

dy/dx+3y =

Here P =3 and Q = e2x

Integrating factor of (1) is epx
= e3x

730

Multiply both sides , we get

e3x . dy/dx+3y .e3x = e2x .e3x
d/dx (y.e3x ) = e5x
Integrating both sides , we
get
731

y. e3x= {e5x dx + C
y. e3x = 1/5 e5x +C ,

or y= 1/5 e2x + C e-3x

which is the required solution
of (1)

732

We have
(ii) dy/dx - 2y = 3x......(i)
Here P = -2 and Q =3x
Integrating factor of (1) is epx
= e-2x
Multiplying both sides . we
get
733

e-2x dy/dx - 2ye-2x = 3x e-2x

ord/dx (y. e-2x ) = 3x e-2x
Integrating both sides we get
y.e-2x = {3x e-2x dx +C

734

=3[x {e-2x dx - {(d/dx (x) . {e2x

dx)}dx]+C
=3[x.e2x/-2 -{(1. e-2x/-2)dx]
+c

735

= -3/2 xe-2x +3/2. e-2x/-2 +C

= -3/2 xe-2x - 3/4 e-3x +C

736

y e-2x = - 3/2 e-2x ( x+1/2) +C

y= - 3/2 ( x+1/2) +ce2x

which is the required solution
of (1).
-----------737

Ex . Solve : dy/dx +4y = 5x

when y= 0 , and x= 0
sol. we have dy/dx +4y = 5x
here P=4 and Q = 5x
738

Integrating factor of (1) by

epx = e4x
Multiplying both sides of (1)
by e4x we get
e4x . dy/dx+4y .e4x =5x .e4x
or d/dx( y.e4x) = 5x e4x
739

Integrating both sides , we

get
y.e4x = 5 {x .e4x dx +C
= 5 [x {e4x dx - {(d/dx(x) {e4x
dx ] dx)+C
= 5 [x.e4x/4-{(1.e4x/4)dx]+c
= 5 [x.e4x/4- 1/4.e4x/4]+c
740

= 5 .e4x/4(x-1/4)+c
or y=5/4(x-1/4)+C e-4x

741

given y= 0 when x = 0
0 = 5/4 .(- 1/4) +C . 1
5/16
hence from (2) the
solution of (1)
when y=0 and x= 0 is

or

C =

required

y= 5/4( x-1/4) +5/16 e-4x

-----------

742

Ex. Solve : dy/dx- 3y = sin 2x

sol . we have dy/dx - 3y = sin

2x ....(i)
here P = -3 and Q = sin 2x
Integrating factor of (1) is
epx = e-3x

743

Multiplying both sides of (1) is

e-3x we get
e-3x dy/dx - 3y . e-3x = e-3x sin
2x

d/dx (y.e-3x ) = e-3x sin 2x

Integrating both sides , we

744

y.e-3x = {e-3x sin 2x dx +C........

(ii)
Now I ={ e-3x sin2x dx =e-3x
{sin 2x dx
- {d/dx (e-3x ){ sin 2x dx } dx
=e-3x .(-cos2x/2)- {-3.e-3x (cos2x/2)dx

745

= - 1/2 e-3x cos 2x - 3/2[ e-3x

{ cos 2x dx
-{(d/dx(e3x).{cos 2x dx )dx

746

= -1/2 e -3x cos 2x - 3/2 [e-3x

(sin2x/2)
-{-3e-3x.(sin2x/2)dx]
= - 1/2 e-3x cos 2x - 3/2 e-3x .
sin 2x
-9/4 {e-3x sin 2xdx
747

= - 1/2 e-3x cos 2x - 3/4 e-3x

sin 2x - 9/4 I
I
+9/4
I=-1/4
e3x(2cos2x+3sin 2x)
or 13/4I =-1/4e-3x (2 cos 2x
+3 sin 2x)

748

e-3x (2cos 2x +3 sin 2x)

I = - -----------------------------13
Substituing this result in (2)
we get the required solution.
-----------

749

Ex. solve : dy/dx+3y =cos2 x

sol
we have dy/dx+3y=
cos2 x.....(i)

here P=3

and Q = cos2 x

750

Integrating factor of (1) is epx

= e3x
Multiplying both sides of (1)
by
e3x, we get
e3x . dy/dx + 3y.e3x =e3x
cos2x
or d/dx (y.e3x)=e3x cos2x
integrating both sides, we get
y.e3x = {e3x cos2x dx+c

751

y.e3x=1/2
e3x/3
+
1/2
{ e3x.cos2x dx +c.....(ii)
Now I={e3x cos 2x dx
=e3x{
cos2xdx-{d/dx(e3x).
{cos2x dx dx
=e3x
sin
2x/2{3.e3x.sin2x/2dx
=1/2
e3x
sin
2x3/2[e3x{sin2xdx-{d/dx
e3x{sin2xdx dx]

752

= 1/2 e3x sin 2x -3/2 [ e3x ( cos2x/2)

-{3e3x . (- cos2x/2) dx ]
= - 1/2 e3x sin 2x + 3/4 e3x
cos 2x -9/4I

753

I + 9/4 =1/4 e3x (2 sin 2x

+3cos 2x)

13/4I = 1/4e3x ( 2 sin 2x+3

cos 2x )
e3x (2sin 2x +3 cos 2x)

754

Hence from (2) the required

solution is
y.e3x=1/6e3x+1/26e3x(2sin2x
+3cos 2x )+C
y= 1/6+ 1/26 (2 sin 2x+3 cos
2x)+ C e-3x
-------------

755

Exact Differential Equation (Def.)

An Equaton of the form M dx+N
dy=0 where M and N are functions
of x and y, is said to be exact if M
dx+N dy is the exact differential of a
functon of x and y i.e.
Mdx+Ndy=du
where u is a function of x and y.
756

EXAMPLE. x dy+y dx=0 is exact

it can be obtained from xy=c directly
by
differentiation Similarly.
sin x cos y dy+cos x sin y dx=0 is
exact
It can be obtained from sin x sin y=c
directly by differertaton.
757

ART. Find the necessary and

sufficient condition that the eq.
Mdx+Ndy=0 may be exact
Sol. The condition is necessary:
Let the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 be
exact.
Mdx+Ndy =du, where u is a function
of
x and y.

758

Mdx+Ndy= au /ax dx+au/ay dy

Equating coeffs. of dx, M=au/ax....(i)

dy,N= au/ay....(ii)
From (1) aM/ay=a2u/ayax
From(2),
aN/ax = a2u/axay
Therefore aM/ay=aN /ax
which is the reqd. necessary
condition.

759

The condition is sufficient:

Let aM/ay = aN/ax
We shall prove that
Mdx+Ndy=0 is exact.
Let
{Mdx=u
(1)
where integratoin has been performed
treating y as constant
760

where integratoin has been performed

treating y as constant
so that a/ax[{ Mdx]= au/ax i.e.
M=au/ax...(ii)

761

There fore am/ay=a2u/ayax......(iii)

Since
aM/ay =aN/ax
and a2u/ayax=a2u/axay
Therefore an/ax=a2u/axay

762

Interarating both sides w.r.t. x, treaing y

as constant.

N= au/ay + a function of y
=au/ay +f (y) (say) .............(4)
From (2) and (4) we get
Mdx+Ndy=au /ax dx+ [au/ay +f(y)]
dy
=(au/ax dx+au/ay dy) +f(y) dy

763

which is an exact differential because

f(y) d(y) =d ({f(y) d(y).
Hence
Mdx+Ndy= 0 is exact.

Cor. If the condition is satisfied,

solve the equation.
The equation is Mdx+Ndy=0 i.e.
du+f(y) dy= 0
764

Integrating,

u+{f(y) dy= c
.....
(5)
From (1),
u= { Mdx
Where y
constant
From (4),
f(y)= terms of N not
containing x.
from (5)
{ Mdx+ {(terms of N not
containing x) dy =c.
y constant

765

1. WORKING RULE
1. if for an equation of the form Mdx
+ Ndy= 0,
aM/ay = aN/ax then it is exact.
2. Its solution is {Mdx +
y constant
{ (terms in N

766

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example : Solve (x2-4xy-2y2) dx+
(y2-4xy-2x2) dy= 0.
SOL. This is of the form Mdx+Ndy
=0
Here M=x2-4xy-2y2
and N =
y2-4xy-2x2
aM/ay = -4x -4y
and
aN/ax=
-4y -4x
Therefore aM /ay= aN/ax

767

The eq. is
{(x2-4xy-2y2)dx+
{y2dy=c
y constant

or { x2dx-4y{xdx-2y2{1dx+{y2dy=c
or x3/3-2x2y-2xy2+y3/3=c is the
required sol.

768

Example Solve xdx+ ydy = a2(xdy-ydx)

------------x2+y2
SOL.

The given equation is.

a2(xdy-ydx)
xdx+ydy= -----------x2+y2
769

or.[x+ a2y/x2+y2] dx+

[y- a2x/x2+y2]dy=0
which is of the form Mdx+
Ndy= 0

770

Here

M= x+
a2y/x2+y2
and
N= ya2x/x2+y2
a2.(x2+y2)(1) -y(2y)
am/ay=0+ --------------------------(x2+y2)2
=a2(x2-y2)/(x2+y2)2
771

772

a2. (x2+y2)(1)-x(2x)
a2 (x2-y2)
aN/ax=0- ---------------------------- =
--------------(x2+y2)2
(x2+y2)2
aM aN
--- = --.
aY ax
the given equaion is exact
773

The solution is
{(x+ a2y)/x2+y2dx+ {ydy=c
Y constant

or. {x dx+a2y{ 1/y2+x2dx+ { y dy=

c

774

or.

x2/2 + a2y. 1/y tan-1

x/y+y2/2=c
or x2+y2+2a2 tan-1 x/y=2c is the reqd.
sol

775

Exmaple Solve (eY+1) cos x dx+eY

sin x dy=0
Sol. the given equation is of the form
Mdx+ Ndy= 0
Here M= (eY+1) cos x and N = eY sin
x
aM /ay = eY cos x and aN /ax =
eycos x
776

The solution is:

{ (eY +1) cos x dx + 0= c
y constant
or. (eY+1){cos x dx =c
or. (eY+1) sin x= c is the reqd. sol.

777

Example 5.
Solve dy
ax + hy + g
---- = - -----------dx
hx+by+f
OR
prove that (ax+hy+g)dx+
(hx+by+f)dy=0,

778

Sol. dy
ax+hy+g
--- =
- ----------dx
hx+by+f
OR. (ax+hy+g) dx+(hx+by+f)dy=0
which is of the form Mdx+Ndy= 0
Here M= ax+hy+g and N=
hx+by+f
aM
and
aN
----- =h
- ---=h

779

aM
aN
--- = --aY
aX
The given eqaution is exact.
The solution is
{ (ax+hy+g)dx+ {(by+f) dy =c
y constant

OR.a x2/2+ (hy+g) x+b. y2/2 +fy =c

OR. ax2+2hxy+ 2gx+by2+2fy= 2c
or. ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c = 0
(let -2c=c)
which being second degree in x and y, represents a
780
family of conics.

Example Solve
y(xy+2x2y2)dx+x(xy-x2y2)dy=0
Sol. The given equation is
y(xy+2x2y2)dx+
x(xy-x2y2)dy= 0 ......(1)
This is of the form y
f(xy)dx+xg(xy)dy =0
Comparing with Ndx+Ndy=0, we
have,
2 2

2 2

781

I.F. = 1/Mg-Ny=1/3x3y3 Multiplying

(1) by
1/3x3y3 ,
we get (1/3x2y + 2/3xdx)+(1/3xy2
-1/3y)dy=0

782

This is an exact =n of the form

Mdx+Ndy=0
Sol. is{Mdx+[terms of N not
containing x]
y = const
dy= C
Sol. of (2) is, { 1/3x2y +2/3x)dx {1/3ydy=c
or -1/3xy + 2/3.log x
-1/3.log y
=c
783

Rule When am/ay

-an/ax
----------------------N
is a function of X alone, say f(x),
Then
e{f(x) dx is an integrating factor of
the equation,
Mdx+Ndy=0

784

Sol. Now e{ f(x)dx is an integrating

factor of (1), if the
equation M e{f(x)dx. dx+N e {f(x)
dx. dy= 0......(2)
is exact , which is so
If
a/ay
[M.
e{f(x)dx]=a/ax[Ne{f(x)dx]
785

or,
or

If aM/ay = aN/ax + N
f(x)
if f(x) = am/ay -an/ax
---------------------- ,

N
which is true (given)
Hence e{f(x)dx is an I.F. of (1)
786

Solve
(x2+y2+2x)dx+2ydy=0.
Sol. The given equation is
(x2+y2+2x)
dx+2y dy= 0 ........(1)
Comparing (1) with Mdx+Ndy= 0,
we have,
M= x2+y2+2x,N=2y.
aM/ay -aN/ax =
2y-0=2y

787

I.F. of (1) = e{ f(x) dx

= e{ 1dx= ex.

Multiplying (1) by ex,

ex(x2+y2+2x)dx+
ex 2ydy= 0 .........(2)
OR d ex (x2+y2) =0
Which is exact. Integrating ,
ex(x2+y2) =C.
Rule :
When
aN/ax -

788

EXAMPLE Solve (y4+2y)dx+(xy3+2y4-4x)dy= 0

Sol.
The given equation is
(y4+2y)dx+(xy3+2y4-4x)dx=0
...........(1)
Comparing (1) with Mdx+Ndy= 0 we
have
M=y4+2y,
N= xy3+2y4-4x.
aN /ax - aM/ay= (y3-4)- (4y3+2)
= -3 (y3+2),
789

aN/ax -aM/aY
------------------------ =-3/y=f(y)
M
I.F. of (1)=e f(y)dy =e -3 log y=elog y3
= y-3
Multiplying (1) by y-3 we have
( y+2/y2)dx+(x+2y4x/y3)dy =0

790

(ydx+xdy) +2( dx/y2 -2x/y3dy)

+2ydy=0
OR
d(xy) +2d. (x/y2) + d (y2)
=0
Which is exact.
Integrating,
xy+2x/y2+y2= C

791

Example Solve the equation

(x2+y2)dy-xy dx=0
given that x=1 , y=1.
Solution
Given=n . is
(x2+y2)dy-xy dx=0
Re-write it as dy/dx =
xy/x2+y2.....(i)
(which is homogeneous

792

Put y = vx and dy /dx=v+x.dv/dx

v+xdv/dx=x2v/x2+x2v2=v/1+v2
or x dv/dx=v/1+v2 -v
=v-v-v3/1+v2
=-v3/1+v2

793

Separate the variables

(1+ v2)/v3dv= -dx/x
Integrating ;
{(1+ v2)/v3dv= {1/xdx+c
or {1/v3dv +
{1/vdv+{1/xdx=c
794

-1/2v2+log v +log x=c

or -1/2v2 +log vx = c
or -x2/2y2+log y =c......(ii)
Given x=1, y=1
Put these values in (ii)

795

-1/2+log 1 =c
or c= -1/2 Put in (ii)
-x2/2y2 +log y = -1/2
or 1/2 +log y = x2/2y2
or (1+2log y)/2=x2/2y2
Hence x2=y2(1+2log y)

796

Example The slope of the tangent

to the hyperbola is
given by (x2+y2)/2xy . Find its
equation if
it passes through (3 , 0)

797

Sol. Slope of tangent

dy
----- ; but
dx

x2 + y 2
slope = ------------ ( given)
2xy

798

dy /dx = (x2 +
y2)/2xy .....(i)
(which is homogeneous in x , y )
put y = vx and dy/dx= v+ x dv/dx in
(i)

799

v+xdv/dx=(x2+v2x2)/2vx2
=(1+v2)/2v
or xdv/dx=(1+v2)/2v -v
=(1+v2-2v2)/2v
=(1-v2)/2v
800

Seprate the variables 2v/1-v2dv=dx/x

integrate {2vdv/1-v2={dx/x +c
or -{-2vdv/1-v2=log x +log c
-log (1-v2)=log cx
or log (1-v2)-1=log cx
1/1-v2=cx
cx(1-v2)=1
801

Put y=vx
cx(1-y2/x2)=1
or c(x2-y2)=x......(ii)
But it passes through the point (3,0)
i.e.
x=3, y=0

802

From IInd c(9-0)=3

or c=3/9=1/3 Put in (ii)
1/3 (x2-y2)=x
Hence x2-y2=3x is the required eq.

803

(ii)

EXAMPLE
(i)
dy
x+2y+4
------ =
------dx
2x+y-1
dy
(y-x)2
----=-----dx
(x+1)
(iii) dy -sin 2(y-x)dx=0

804

solution 1
given dy/dx=(x+2y+4)/2x+y-1....(i)
suppose x=X+h,y=Y+k;
dy/dx=dY/dX
and put in (1)
dY
X+h+2Y+2k+4 X+2Y+
(h+2k+4)
---- = --------------------- =

805

Choose h and k in such a way that

h+2k+4=0, 2h+k-1=0 (iii)
Solving =ns .of (iii)
we get h=2,k=-3 and put in (ii)
n. (II) become
dY
X+2Y
------ = --------dX
2X+Y ......(IV)
(Homogeneous in X,Y)
806

Let Y=vX
dY/dX=v+Xdv/dX put in (iv)
v+Xdv/dX=(X+2vX)/2X+vX=(1+2v)
/2+v
or Xdv/dX=(1+2v)/2+v -v
Xdv/dX=(1+2v-2v-v2)/(2+v)
=(1-v2)/(2+v)
807

Seprate the variables(2+v)dv/(1v2)=dX/X

Integrate both sides
{(2+v)dv/(1-v2)={dX/X+c
=log X+log c
log cX={(2+v)dv/(1-v)(1+v)
={[1/2(1+v) +3/2(1-v)]dv
(by partial fraction)

808

1/2 log (1+v)+3/2 log (1-v)=log (1+v)1/2+

log (1-v)-3/2
or log (1+v)1/2(1-v)-3/2=log cX
(1+v)1/2 /(1-v)3/2= cX
squaring (1+v)/(1-v)3=c2X2
or (1+v)=AX2(1-v)3.....(v)

809

Put v=Y/X in (v)

1+Y/X=AX2(1-Y/X)3=AX2(XY)3/X3
(X+Y)2=A(X-Y)3......(vi)

810

But X=x-2
Y=y+3
Put in (vi)
x+y+1=A(x-y-5)3 is the requried sol.

811

(II)

dy
(y-x)2
Given d.e. is ------ = -----dx
(x+1)2 ......(1)
(non homogeneous)

812

Put x=X+h,y= Y+k,

dy
dY
------ = ---dx
dX
and put in (1)
dY (Y+k-X-h)2
--=----------dX
(X+h+1)2

813

(Y-X+k-h)2
= ------------ .....(ii)
(X+h+1)2
Choose h & k in such a way that kh=0 & h+1=0........(iii)

814

Solving = ns. (III) we get h= -1, k= -1

and put in (II)
dY (Y-X)2
---- = -------dX (X)2
........(iv)
which is homogeneous
815

Let Y=vX
dY/dX=v+Xdv/dX put in (ii)
v+X dv/dX=(vX-X)2/X2
=(v-1)2

816

Xdv/dX=v2-2v+1-v
=v2-3v+1
or 1dv/(v2-3v+1)
=dX/x

817

Integrate both sides

{dv/v2-3v+1
={dX/x+c
=log X+logc
or {dv/v2-3v+9/4+1-9/4
=logcX

818

Log cX={dv/v2-3v+9/4-5/4
={dv/(v-3/2)2-5/4
log cX=1/ -/5 log (v-3/2- -/5/2)/v-3/2
+ -/5/2

819

Log cX=1/ -/5 Log (2v-3- -/5/2v-3

+ -/5).....(v)
Put v=Y/X=y-k/x-h
=(y+1)/(x+1)in (v)

820

-/5 log c (x+1)

2 (y+1)/(x+1)-3-/5
=log
------------------------2 (y+1)/(x+1)-3+
-/5
(2y+2-3x-3- -/5x- -/5)
= log ---------------------------2y+2-3x-3+ -/5x+ -/5
is the required sol.

821

sol. 3 Given diff. eq. is

dy-sin2(y-x) dx=0
or dy/dx=sin2(y-x).....(i)
Let y-x=t
dy/dx -1=dt/dx

822

dy/dx=1+dt/dx
Put in (i)
1+dt/dx=sin2t
or dt/dx+1-sin2t=0
or dt/dx+cos2t=0

823

dt+cos2tdx=0
or dt / cos2 t+dx=0
(Seprating the variables)
Integrate {dt/cos2 t+{dx=c
{sec2 t dt+x=c
tan t+x-c=0

824

Put t=y-x
Hence tan (y-x)+x=c is the
required sol.

825

Deff : linear differential

equation.
A differential equation in
which the dependet variable
(y) & its darivatives occur
only in the 1st degree & are
not multyplied together is
called a linear diff. eq.
826

Non liener diff. eq.

A diff. eq. Which is not
liener is called
Non liener.

827

Non-homogeneous
differential equation
A differential equation which
is not homogeneous, is
called a Non-homogeneous
Differential Equation,
For example
dy/dx=(x2+xy+y2)/(x+y+1)
828

Exact differential equation.

A differential equation
obtained by directly
differentiating a functional
relation between x and y
without any
829

additional transformation
such as elimination,
multiplication or reduction,
is called an Exact
Differential Equation.
For example
4ydx+3xdy=0
830

1.3.Formation of a
differential equation
A differential equation is
formed by eliminating the
arbitrary constants from a
given functional relation
between variable with the
help of derivatives. Also a
physical or geometrical
problem can be expressed
in the form of a differential
831

equation by means of
mathematical symbols.
Method. (i). Differentiatethe
given relation is x and y as
many times as the number
of arbitrary
constantsitcontains. (ii)
Eliminate the
arbitaryconstants from the
given relation and the

832

The method is illustrated

below. Suppose y=A sin
mx+B cos mx. It contains
two arbitrary constants A
and B. So differentiate twice
the given relation
dy/dx=Am cos mx - Bm sin
mx

833

Solution of a differential
equation
Definition. Any functional
relation between the
variables, free of derivatives
and satisfying the given
differential equationis called
the Solution of the
differential equation
834

The solution is also called the Integralor

Primitive of the differential equation.The
process of finding the solution is known
as Integrating the equation.

835

It is evident from the

formation of the differential
equation. If the primitive
contains one arbitrary
constant, the elimination of
the arbitrary constant leads
to a first order differential
equation. Similarly the
elimination of two constants
836

from the primitive leads to

a differential equation of
second order.

837

Thus, conversely, the

integration of the first order
differential equation will
contain one arbitrary
constant

838

and that of the

second order differential
equation will contain two
arbitrary constants.

839

Type of solution.
There are three
types of the
solutions.
(i) General(or
complete) solution.
(ii) Particular
solution
(iii) Singular solution

840

General Solution
A solution of the
differential equation
containing the same
number of arbitrary
constants as the order of
the differential

841

equation, is called the

General(or Complete)
Solution. Thus y=a sin mx
+B cos mx is the general
solution of
d2y/dx2+m2y=0

842

Particular solution. A solution

obtained from the general
solution by giving particular
numerical values to the
arbitrary constants, then
y=sin mx+2 cos mx is the
particular solution of

843

d2y/dx2+m2y=0
In the fields of applied
sciences and engineering
the differential equations
accompanied by certain
initial conditions on the
variables are given and with
the help of these conditions,
the particular solution is
found.

844

Singular solution : A solution

which satisfies the given
differential equation but not
obtainable from the general
solution, is called the
Singular Solution.
--

845

Determinants
deff : A Det. is the eliminant
of the variables from a
system of liener
homogenious eq. arrenged
in the form of a solied
square by simply writting
the coefficients of the
variables in parallel lines
bounded by two vertical
lines

846

Thus a1 b1 c1 ......k1
a2 b2 c2......k2
.
.
.
an bn cn..
kn
is a det. of Nth order
847

Elements or Constituents
The letters a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2,.....are
called the Elements or Constituents
of the determinant.Thus a
determinant of 2nd order and 3rd
order will contain 4 and 9 elements
respectively. Similarly the
determinant of nth order will
contain n2 elements.
848

Terms
The products of elements as a1b2,
a1b2c3 etc. are called the Terms of
the determinants of 2nd order and
3rd order respectively.

849

Expansion
The expression on L.H.S. of (v) or
(vii) is called the Expansion of 2nd
order or 3rd order determinant
respectively.

850

Rows
The horizontal parallel lines are
called the Rows and are numbered
from top to bottom. Thus a1 b1 c1
is the first row of 3rd order
determinant and may be written as
R1. Similarly the 2nd and 3rd rows
are symbolically written as R2 and
R3 respectively.
851

Columns
The vertical parallel lines are called
Columns and are numbered from
left to right. Thus a1 a2 a3 is the
first column and is symbolically
written as C1. Similarly the 2nd
and 3rd columns are symbolically
written as C2 and C3 respectively.

852

Order
A determinant containing n
rows and n columns is called
a determinant of nth order.

853

Principal term
The diagonal through the left hand
top-corner containing the elements
a1, b2..... Kn is called the Leading or
Principal Diagonal and the term
a1 b2 c3........ kn is called the
Leading Term.

854

Minor and Co- factor

(a) Minor. The Minor of an element
in a determinant, is the determinant
obtained by deleting the row and
column containing that element
from the given determinant.
For example if D= a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b 3
c

Minor of c2=a1 b1

855

Co - Factor
The Co-factor of an element in a determinant is
its minor with a proper sign prefixed i.e. the
minor of the elements preceded by a positive
or negative sign is called the Co-factor of
that element. The sign of the element in the
ith row and jth column is as (-1)i+j. The cofactor of an element is usually denoted by the
correxponding capital letters. Thus the cofactors of a1, b2, c3 will be denoted by A1 B2
C3 respectively.
856
cont...

Expaansion of a determinaant
A few methods of expanding a
determinant are given below
First method (Genral exxpaansion)
For the sake of convenience the
determinant of 3rd order D=
a 1 b 1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
857

| b2 c2 |
| a2 c2 |
D=a1 |
|-b1 |
|
| b3 c3 |
| a3 c3|

+c1

| a2 b2 |
|
|
| a3 b3 |

858

Property
A det. Vanishes if each element of its
Row or column is 0

859

Property
The value of the determinant remains
unaltered by changing its rows into
columns and columns into rows

860

Cor 1
Any theorem concerning rows,
equally applies to its columins and
vice versa.

COR 2
In the view of above theorem a
determinant can be expanded by
any row or column.

861

Property
A determinant retains its absolute
value but changes in sign, if two of
its parallel lines (rows or columns)
are interchanged.

862

Property :
A det. Vanishes if its any two parallel lines are
indentical
Property :
If all the elements of a line (row or column) be
multiplied by a common factor then the whole det.
is multiplied by that factor.

863

Property :
If each Element of a line
Consist of m terms,
the det. can be expressed
as the sum of m det.

864

Property :
The value of a det.
remanes same if to each
Element of a line be
added equi - multiples of the
corseponding elements of one
or more parallel lines
865

Property :
If all the elements of any one row
(or column) are multiplied by
the same constant then the
original det. is multiplied by
that constant.

866