Porosity

By: Dr. Pavel Spirov

Petroleum geology

 The principal goal of reservoir characterization is to construct

three dimensional images of petrophysical properties.
basic definitions and laboratory measurements of the
petrophysical properties porosity, permeability, relative
permeability, capillarity, and saturation. Pore-size
distribution is presented as the common link between these
properties.

Characterisation of reservoir rocks

Petrophysics is study of the physical properties of the rocks. For rock to form a reservoir:

Characterisation of reservoir rocks

Petrophysics is study of the physical properties of the rocks. For rock to form a reservoir:

Porosity

Absolute porosity
Effective porosity

Porosity

Absolute porosity
-

is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the
bulk volume.
A rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no
conductivity to fluid for lack of pore interconnection

Effective porosity
- is the percentage of interconnected pore space with respect
to the bulk volume

Petroleum Geology Anatomy of oil & gas fields

Reservoir types

LIMESTONES:
Consist of calcite
generated by biological
activity. Can
chemically be changed
into dolomite.
Porosity types:
Intergranular (between
grains)
SANDSTONES: consist og quartz,
feldspar grains and clay minerals.
Porosity mostly intergranular (in
between the sand grains)

Intragranular (inside
grains/fossils)
Dissolution (vugs,
caverns)

Porosity

Porosity is determined by core analysis or by

well logging

Porosity
Porosity is determined by visual methods and laboratory
measurements.
Visual methods of measuring total porosity are estimates at
best because the amount of porosity visible depends on the
method of observation: the higher the magnification, the
more pore space is visible.
Porosity is commonly estimated by visual inspection of core
labs using a low-power microscope

Determination of porosity
Porosity is determined by visual methods and laboratory measurements
- Porosity is commonly estimated by visual inspection of core slabs using a lowpower microscope
Measurement of porosity of rock samples in the laboratory requires
knowing the bulk volume of the rock and either its pore volume or the
volume of the matrix material (mineral volume)
Bulk volume is usually
measured by volumetric displacement of a strongly nonwetting fluid, such as
mercury, or by direct measurement of a regularly shaped sample

Determination of porosity
Pore volume can be obtained in a number of ways.

If the mineralogy is known, mineral volume can be calculated from grain density and the sample
weight; pore volume is bulk volume minus mineral volume.
Methods of measuring:
The most accurate method of measuring porosity is the 1/ helium expansion method:
A dried sample is placed in a chamber of known volume and the pressure is measured
with and without the sample, keeping the volume of gas constant difference in pressure indicates the
pore volume.
2/ The injection of mercury under very high pressure (the
porosimeter) is also used to measure porosity.
The complete removal of all fluids is critical for accurate measurements of porosity. Any fluid that is
not removed will be included as part of the mineral volume, resulting in porosity values being too low

Exercise
Calculate density of the rock
Calculate the porosity
pH of water

Example:
A clean and dry core sample weighing 425 g was 100%
saturated with 1.07 specific gravity ( ) brine. The new
weight is 453 g. The core sample is 12 cm in length and
4 cm in diameter.
Calculate the porosity of the rock sample.

Vt - total volume
Vs - solid volume
Vp - pore volume

Core analysis

Vt - total
volume

Core Measurements
These samples can provide
useful details of the lithology,
petrology, porosity,
permeability, and hydrocarbon
content of the formation
All of these measurements help
geologists, engineers and
drillers better understand the
conditions of the well and its
potential productivity.

Factors controlling porosity

a) Grain Diameter
Grain size
Grain size distribution (Sorting)
Grain shape
b) Depth Compaction
c) Packing
d) Primary porosity + Secondary

Porosity

The porosities of petroleum reservoirs range from 5% to 30%, but most

frequently are between 10% and 20% (Table 3.1). Any porosity less than 5%
is very seldom commercial, and any porosity more than 35% is extremely
unusual.

Th e factors gover ning the magnitude of porosity in

clastic sediment are as follows:

Controls on porosity

Packing (A = 48%; B =
26%)

SAND
GRAIN

Sorting

Compaction &
cementation

The factors governing the magnitude of porosity in clastic sediment

are as follows:
A/ Uniformity of grain size:
Uniformity or sorting is the gradation of grains.
If small particles of silt or clay are mixed with larger sand grains, the effective (intercommunicating) porosity will
be considerably reduced. These reservoirs are referred to as dirty or shaly. Sorting depends on at least four major
factors: size range of material, type of deposition, current characteristics, and the duration of the sedimentary
process.

b/ Degree of cementation or consolidation:

The highly cemented sand
stones have low porosities, whereas the soft, unconsolidated rocks have high porosities. Cementation takes place
both at the time of lithification and during rock alteration by circulating groundwater. The process is essentially
that of filling void spaces with mineral material, which reduce porosity. Cementing materials include calcium
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, iron carbonate, iron sulfides, limonite, hematite, dolomite calcium sulfate,
clays, and many other materials including any combination of these materials.

The factors governing the magnitude of porosity in clastic sediment

are as follows:
c/ Amount of compaction during and after deposition:
Compaction tends to lose voids and squeeze fluid out to bring the mineral particles close
together, especially the finer-grained sedimentary rocks. This expulsion
of fluids by compaction at an increased temperature is the basic mechanism for primary migration of petroleum from the source
to reservoir rocks. Whereas compaction is an important lithifying process in claystones, shales, and fine-grained carbonate
rocks, it is negligible in closely packed sandstones or conglomerates. Generally, porosity is lower in deeper, older rocks, but
exceptions to this basic trend are common. Many carbonate rocks show little evidence of physical compaction.

d/ Methods of packing:
With increasing overburden pressure, poorly sorted angular sand grains show a progressive change from random packing to

closer packing. Some crushing and plastic deformation of the sand particles occur s.

ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF
POROSITY

During sedimentation and lithification, some of the pore spaces initially developed
became isolated from the other pore spaces by various diagenetic and catagenetic
processes such as cementation and compact ion
From this , many of the pores will be interconnected, whereas others will be completely
isolated.
This leads to two distinct categories of porosity, namely , total (absolute) and effective
The difference between the total and effective porosities is the isolated or non effective
porosity
Absolute porosity is the ratio of the total void space in the sample to the bulk volume of
that sample
In order to recover oil and gas from reservoirs, the hydrocarbons must flow
several hundred feet through the pore channels in the rock before they reach the
producing wellbore. If the petroleum occupies non connected void spaces, it cannot be
produced and is of little interest to the petroleum engineer. Therefore, effective porosity
is the value used in all reservoir engineering calculations

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
POROSITY
A common method of classifying porosity of petroleum reservoirs is based on
whether pore spaces in which oil and gas are found originated when the sand beds
were laid down (primary or matrix porosity), or if they were formed through
subsequent diagenes is (e.g. ,dolomitization in carbon ate rocks ), cat agenesis ,
earth stresses, and solution by water flowing through the rock (secondary or induced
porosity)
Primary Porosity
Secondary Porosity

Primary Porosity
Intercrystalline voids:

Voids between cleavage planes of crystals, voids between individual crystals, and voids in crystal lattices. Many of
these voids are sub-capillary, i.e., pores less than 0.002 mm in diameter. The porosity found in crystal lattices and
between mud-sized particles is called
micro-porosity
Intergranular or interparticle voids:
Voids between grains, i.e., interstitial voids of all kinds in all types of rocks. These openings range from subcapillary to
super-capillary size (voids greater than 0.5 mm in diameter).
Bedding planes voids:
Voids of many varieties are concentrated parallel to bedding planes. The larger geometry of many petroleum reservoirs
is
controlled by such bedding planes. Differences of sediments deposited, of particle sizes and arrangements, and of the
environments of deposition are causes of bedding plane voids
Miscellaneous sedimentary voids:

(1) Voids resulting from the accumulation of detrital fragments of fossils, (2) voids resulting from the packing of oolites,
(3) vuggy and cavernous voids of irregular and variable sizes formed at the time of deposition, and (4) voids created by
living organisms at the time of deposition.

Secondary Porosity
Secondary porosity is the result of geological processes (diagenesis and
catagenesis) after the deposition of sediment. The magnitude, shape, size,
and interconnection of the pores may have no direct relation to the form of
original sedimentary particles. Induced porosity can be subdivided into
three groups based on the most dominant geological process:

Solution porosity:
Dolomitization:
Fracture porosity:
Miscellaneous secondary voids:

 Solution porosity:
Channels due to the solution of rocks by circulating
warm or hot solutions; openings caused by weathering, such as enlarged joints and solution
caverns; and voids caused by organisms and later enlarged by solution

Dolomitization:
A process by which limestone is transformed into dolomite according to the
following chemical reaction:
Some carbonates are almost pure limestones, and if the circulating pore water
contains significant amounts of magnesium cation, the calcium in the rock can be
exchanged for magnesium in the solution. Because the ionic volume of
magnesium is considerably smaller than that of the calcium, which it replaces,
the resulting dolomite will have greater porosity. Complete replacement of
calcium by magnesium can result in a 12-13%
increase in porosity

 Fracture porosity:
Openings created by structural failure of the reservoir
rocks under tension caused by tectonic activities such as folding and
faulting. These openings include joints, fissures, and fractures. In some
reservoir rocks, such as the Ellenburger carbonate fields of West Texas,
fracture porosity is important. Porosity due to fractures alone in the carbonates
usually does not exceed 1%

Miscellaneous secondary voids:

(1) Saddle reefs, which are openings at
the crests of closely folded narrow anticlines; (2) pitches and flats, which
are openings formed by the parting of beds under gentle slumping; and
(3) voids caused by submarine slide breccias and conglomerates
resulting
from gravity movement of seafloor material after partial lithification.

 In carbonate reservoirs, secondary porosity is much more

important than primary porosity: dolomites comprise nearly
80% of North American hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Primary porosity is dominant in clastic also called
detrital or fragmental sedimentary rocks such as
sandstones, conglomerates, and certain oolitic limestones.
However, it is important to emphasize that both types of
porosity often occur in the same reservoir rock.

VISUAL DESCRIPTION OF POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS

The development of well logging technology has provided the petroleum
industry with effective and direct methods to measure the in situ porosity of a
formation
The visualdescription of the pore geometry:
(1) the grain size
(2) the amount of interparticle porosity
(3) the amount of unconnected vugs
(4) the presence of fractures and cavities

(5) the presence or absence of connected vugs on the porosity - permeability

relationship and other petrophysical parameters of naturally fractured reservoirs

 Lucia presented field classification of carbonate rock

pore space
based on the visual description of petrophysical
parameter s of a large number of samples
This shows two common
types of particle sizes
based on artificially
prepared samples
containing various kinds
of carbonate particles:
large sandsized particles
such as those found in
packstone or grainstone
deposits, small
silt-to-clay-sized particles
such as mudstone or
wackestone

 The concept of support in

defining particle size in
dolomites is illustrate. If
the dolomite crystals form
a continuous, supporting
network, their size controls
the connected pore size.
The dolomite crystal size is
of primary interest when it
is the same or larger than
the sediment particle
size, such as observed in
dolomitized limestone or
wackestone rocks.

 Next = Lucia classification