A PRESENTATION ON FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES BY STEAD FAST

ENGINEERS
http://www.steadfastengg.com/

OUR OBJECTIVES
Introduction
Type

of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

INTRODUCTION

What is a Furnace?

Equipment to melt metals

Casting
Change

shape
Change properties

Type of fuel important

Mostly

liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity

Low efficiencies due to

High

operating temperature
Emission of hot exhaust gases
3

INTRODUCTIO
N

Furnace Components

Chimney:
remove
combustion
gases

Burners: raise or
maintain chamber
temperature

Furnace chamber:
constructed of
insulating materials
Hearth: support or
carry the steel.
Consists of
refractory materials

Charging & discharging doors

for loading & unloading stock

INTRODUCTION

What are Refractories:

Materials that
Withstand

high temperatures and sudden changes

Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot gases
etc
Withstand load at service conditions
Withstand abrasive forces
Conserve heat
Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
Will not contaminate the load
5

INTRODUCTION

Refractories
Refractory lining of a
furnace arc

Refractory walls of a
furnace interior with
burner blocks
6

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Refractories

Melting point

Temperature

at which a test pyramid (cone)

fails to support its own weight

Size

Affects

stability of furnace structure

Bulk density
Amount

of refractory material within a volume

(kg/m3)
High bulk density = high volume stability, heat
capacity and resistance
7

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Refractories

Porosity

Volume

of open pores as % of total refractory

volume
Low porosity = less penetration of molten
material

Cold crushing strength

Resistance

of refractory to crushing

Creep at high temperature

Deformation

of refractory material under stress

at given time and temperature
8

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Refractories

Pyrometric cones
Used

in ceramic industries
to test refractoriness of
refractory bricks
Each cone is mix of oxides
that melt at specific
temperatures

(BEE India, 2004)

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which the refractory brick and
the cone bend
9
Refractory cannot be used above this temp

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Refractories

Volume stability, expansion & shrinkage

Permanent

changes during refractory service life

Occurs at high temperatures

Reversible thermal expansion

Phase

transformations during heating and cooling

10

INTRODUCTION

Properties of Refractories

Thermal conductivity
Depends

on composition and silica content

Increases with rising temperature

High thermal conductivity:

Heat

transfer through brickwork required

E.g. recuperators, regenerators

Low thermal conductivity:

Heat

conservation required (insulating

refractories)
E.g. heat treatment furnaces
11

OBJECTIVE : STEAM
Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials
Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

12

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Type of Furnaces
Forging

furnaces
Re-rolling mill furnaces
Continuous reheating furnaces

Type of Refractories
Type of Insulating Materials

13

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Classification Combustion Furnaces

Classification method

Types and examples

1. Type of fuel used

Oil-fired
Gas-fired
Coal-fired

2. Mode of charging materials

Intermittent / Batch
Periodical
Forging
Re-rolling (batch/pusher)
Pot
Continuous
Pusher
Walking beam
Walking hearth
Continuous recirculating bogie furnaces
Rotary hearth furnaces

3. Mode of heat transfer

Radiation (open fire place)

Convection (heated through medium)

4. Mode of waste heat

recovery

Recuperative
Regenerative

14

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Forging Furnace
Used to preheat billets/ingots
Use open fireplace system with radiation
heat transmission
Temp 1200-1250 oC
Operating cycle

Heat-up

time
Soaking time
Forging time

Fuel use: depends on material and number of

reheats
15

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Re-rolling Mill Furnace Batch type

Box type furnace
Used for heating up scrap/ingots/billets
Manual charge / discharge of batches
Temp 1200 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 10 - 15 tons/day
Fuel use: 180-280 kg coal/ton material

16

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Re-rolling Mill Furnace

Continuous pusher type
Not batch, but continuous charge and
discharge
Temp 1250 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 20-25 tons/day
Heat absorption by material is slow, steady,
uniform

17

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Continuous material flow
Material temp 900 1250 oC
Door size minimal to avoid air infiltration
Stock kept together and pushed

Pusher

type furnaces

Stock on moving hearth or structure

Walking

beam, walking hearth, continuous

recirculating bogie, rotary hearth furnaces
18

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

1. Pusher Furnace
Pushers

on skids (rails) with water-cooled

support push the stock
Hearth sloping towards discharge end
Burners at discharge
end or top and/or
bottom
Chimney with
recuperator for
waste heat recovery
19

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

2. Walking Beam Furnace
Stock

placed on stationary ridges

Walking beams raise the stock and move forwards
Walking beams lower stock onto stationary ridges at
exit
Stock is removed
Walking beams
return to furnace
entrance
20

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

3. Walking Hearth Furnace
Refractory

blocks extend through hearth openings

Stock rests on fixed refractory blocks
Stock transported
in small steps
walking the hearth
Stock removed
at discharge end

21

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie Furnace
Shape

of long and narrow tunnel

Stock placed on bogie (cart with wheels) with
refractory hearth
Several bogies
move like train
Stock removed
at discharge end
Bogie returned
to entrance

22

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

5. Rotary Hearth Furnace
Walls

and roof remain stationary

Hearth moves in circle on rollers
Stock placed on hearth
Heat moves in
opposite direction
of hearth
Temp 1300oC
23

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Classification of Refractories
Classification method

Examples

Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases

Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate

BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic

oxides that resist the action of bases

Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite

NEUTRAL, which does not combine with

acids nor bases

Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina

Special

Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia

End use

Blast furnace casting pit

Method of manufacture

Dry press process, fused cast, hand

moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically
bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics,
ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying)
24

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Fireclay Refractories

Common in industry: materials available and

inexpensive
Consist of aluminium silicates
Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing
impurity and decreasing AL2O3

High Alumina Refractories

45 - 100% alumina
High alumina % = high refractoriness
25
Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces,
ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Silica Brick

>93% SiO2 made from quality rocks

Iron & steel, glass industry
Advantages: no softening until fusion point is
reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to
spalling, flux and slag, volume stability

Magnesite
Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide
Properties depend on silicate bond concentration
26
High slag resistance, especially lime and iron

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Chromite Refractories

Chrome-magnesite
15-35%

Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO

Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces
Withstand corrosive slags
High refractories

Magnesite-chromite
>60%

MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3

High temp resistance
Basic slags in steel melting
Better spalling resistance

27

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Zirconia Refractories

Zirconium dioxide ZrO2

Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.
High strength, low thermal conductivity, not
reactive, low thermal loss
Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities
Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high
resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere
28
Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Monolithics
Single piece casts in equipment shape
Replacing conventional refractories
Advantages

Elimination

of joints
Faster application
Heat savings
Better spalling resistance
Volume stability
Easy to transport, handle, install
Reduced downtime for repairs

29

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Insulating Materials Classification

Material with low heat conductivity: keeps
furnace surface temperature low
Classification into five groups

Insulating

bricks
Insulating castables and concrete
Ceramic fiber
Calcium silicate
Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)

30

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Castables and Concretes

Consist of

Insulation

materials used for making piece

refractories
Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina
cement

Application

Monolithic

linings of furnace sections

Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics industry
31

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Ceramic Fibers
Thermal mass insulation materials
Manufactured by blending alumina and silica
Bulk wool to make insulation products

Blankets,

strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc

Produced in two temperature grades

32

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits

Low thermal conductivity

Light weight
Lower heat storage
Thermal shock resistant
Chemical resistance
Mechanical resilience
Low installation costs
Ease of maintenance
Ease of handling
Thermal efficiency

Lightweight furnace
Simple steel fabrication
work
Low down time
Increased productivity
Additional capacity
Low maintenance costs
Longer service life
High thermal efficiency
33
Faster response

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity: ability to absorb and radiate heat
Coatings applied to interior furnace surface:

emissivity

stays constant
Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8
Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%

34

TYPE OF FURNACES AND

REFRACTORIES

High Emissivity Coatings

35

TRAINING AGENDA: STEAM

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials
Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

36

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Heat Losses Affecting Furnace

Performance
Heat input

FURNACE
Heat in stock

Other losses

Furnace surface/skin

Openings in furnace

Hydrogen in fuel

Moisture in fuel

Flue gas

37

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Instruments to Assess Furnace

Performance
Parameters
to be measured

Location of
measurement

Instrument
required

Required
Value

Furnace soaking zone

temperature (reheating
furnaces)

Soaking zone and side

wall

Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple
with indicator and
recorder

1200-1300oC

Flue gas temperature

In duct near the discharge

end, and entry to
recuperator

Chromel Alummel
Thermocouple with
indicator

700oC max.

Flue gas temperature

After recuperator

Hg in steel thermometer

300oC (max)

Furnace hearth pressure

in the heating zone

Near charging end and

side wall over the hearth

Low pressure ring gauge

+0.1 mm of Wc

Oxygen in flue gas

In duct near the discharge

end

Fuel efficiency monitor for

oxygen and temperature

5% O2

Billet temperature

Portable

Infrared pyrometer or
optical pyrometer

38

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method
Thermal efficiency of furnace
= Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel consumed
for heating the stock
Heat in the stock Q:
Q = m x Cp (t1 t2)

Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal

39
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in oC

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method - example
Heat in the stock Q =
m

x Cp (t1 t2)
6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 40)
936000 kCal

Efficiency =
(heat

input / heat output) x 100

[936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43%

Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75%

m = Weight of
the stock = 6000
kg
Cp= Mean
specific heat of
stock = 0.12
kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final
temperature of
stock = 1340 oC
t2 = Initial
temperature of
the stock = 40 oC
Calorific value of
oil = 10000
kCal/kg
Fuel consumption
40
= 368 kg/hr

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Calculating Furnace Performance

Indirect Method
Heat losses

Flue gas loss

= 57.29 %
b) Loss due to moisture in fuel
= 1.36 %
c)
Loss due to H2 in fuel
= 9.13 %
d) Loss due to openings in furnace
= 5.56 %
e)
Loss through furnace skin
= 2.64 %
Total losses
= 75.98 %
a)

Furnace efficiency =

Heat supply minus total heat loss

100% 76% = 24%

41

ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES

Calculating Furnace Performance

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces
Furnace type

Thermal efficiencies (%)

1) Low Temperature furnaces

a. 540 980 oC (Batch type)

20-30

b. 540 980 oC (Continous type)

15-25

c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type

5-7

d. Strip Anneal Muffle

7-12

2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary

7-15

b. Batch forge

5-10

3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman

25-90

b. Tunnel

20-80

4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC)

35-40

b. Direct fired ovens (20 C 370 C)

35-40

42

TRAINING AGENDA: STEAM

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials
Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

43

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES
Complete combustion with minimum excess air
2. Proper heat distribution
3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature
4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft
6. Optimum capacity utilization
7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8. Minimize furnace skin losses
9. Use of ceramic coatings
10. Selecting the right refractories
1.

44

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

1. Complete Combustion with

Minimum Excess Air

Importance of excess air

Too

much: reduced flame temp, furnace temp,

heating rate
Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses

Indication of excess air: actual air /

theoretical combustion air
Optimizing excess air

Control

air infiltration
Maintain pressure of combustion air
Ensure high fuel quality
Monitor excess air

45

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

2. Proper Heat Distribution

When using burners

Flame should not touch or be obstructed

No intersecting flames from different burners
Burner in small furnace should face upwards but
not hit roof
More burners with less capacity (not one big
burner) in large furnaces
Burner with long flame to improve uniform
heating in small furnace
46

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

3. Operate at Optimum Furnace

Temperature

Operating at too high temperature: heat loss,

oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress

Automatic controls eliminate human error

Slab Reheating furnaces

1200oC

Rolling Mill furnaces

1200oC

Bar furnace for Sheet Mill

800oC

Bogie type annealing furnaces

650oC 750oC
47

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace

Openings

Heat loss through openings

Direct

radiation through openings

Combustion gases leaking through the openings
Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace

Energy saving measures

Keep

opening small
Seal openings
Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter

48

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Negative pressure in furnace: air infiltration
Maintain slight positive pressure
Not too high pressure difference: air exfiltration

Heat loss only about 1% if furnace pressure is

controlled properly!
49

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

Optimum load

Underloading:

lower efficiency
Overloading: load not heated to right temp

Optimum load arrangement

Load

receives maximum radiation

Hot gases are efficiently circulated
Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue
system, close to openings

Optimum residence time

Coordination
Planning

between personnel

at design and installation stage

50

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES
7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases

Charge/Load pre-heating
Reduced

fuel needed to heat them in furnace

Pre-heating of combustion air

Applied

to compact industrial furnaces

Equipment used: recuperator, self-recuperative
burner
Up to 30% energy savings

Heat source for other processes

Install

waste heat boiler to produce steam

Heating in other equipment (with care!)

51

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Choosing appropriate refractories
Increasing wall thickness
Installing insulation bricks (= lower
conductivity)
Planning furnace operating times

24

hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories lost

8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost

52

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

High emissivity coatings
Long life at temp up to 1350 oC
Most important benefits

Rapid

efficient heat transfer

Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Emissivity stays constant

Energy savings: 8 20%

53

ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OPPORTUNITIES

10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Selection criteria

Type of furnace
Type of metal charge
Presence of slag
Area of application
Working temperatures
Extent of abrasion and
impact

Structural load of
furnace
Stress due to temp
gradient & fluctuations
Chemical compatibility
Heat transfer & fuel
conservation
Costs

54

Furnaces and
Refractories

THANK YOU

55

DISCLAIMERS AND REFERENCES

This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of
the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from
Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP). While
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not
be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. UNEP, 2006.
The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
56

Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is

available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org