Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HEERALAL
Associate Professor&Head
Geotechnical Engg Division
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT, Warangal
Mobile NO: 9052066114
Email:mhl@nitw.ac.in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
The Basic concern of a Civil Engineering is the
Design
Construction
Supervision maintenances of different types of
structure as
buildings
bridges
canals
Tube wells
water tanks
roads
Classification of Materials
Based on Chemical Composition
Materials
Organic
Inorganic
compounds).
1. Siliceous (silica)-Cnsisting of Quartz,sand etc
2. Argillaceous (clay)-Consisting of clay minerals
3. Calcareous (calcium)-Consists of carbonate of lime
Some common building materials are metals such as
- Cement (silicaceous)
- Lime (calcareous)
- Clay (argillaceous)
- Bitumen (organic)
Finishing materials
- paints
- varnishes
- distemper etc..
Insulating materials
- rock wool
- glass wool
- expanded clays
Properties of Materials
It is very important to have the knowledge of
properties of the building materials.
Material properties are an important parameter
that decide the life and function of the structure
The selection of proper materials for the
engineering purpose would depend on the
following factors.
Availability of the materials
Suitability of the materials
Cost of the materials
(g/cc)
Bulk Density or unit Weight :
Permeability :
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
These prporties are associated with the ability of the
materials to resist forces and loads.
Resilience : The ability of a material to recover its size and form after the
deformation.
Hardness : it is the ability of material to resist penetration by a harder
body.
The resistance offered by any material to indentation scratching cutting or
wear by abrasion.
Brittleness : these materials offer very poor resistance to bending ,
damage under repeated loading. Fatigue failure takes place under the
influence of repetitive( or) cyclic load
the failure of a material by cracking resulting from repeated straining action.
contact with another surface moving with respect to it. This is important in
road surfaces, ware house floors etc.
Impact Strength : ( is a combination of toughness & strength of a material,
text books
reference books, hand books
IS codes ( published by Bureau of Indian Standards)
Manufacturers catalogues
various Journals and Magazines ( Latest Development)
Inside of Earth
The earth, our homeland, is a dynamic
planet.
Its constantly undergoing changes inside
and outside.
Igneous rocks :
When the molten magma cools, it
becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called
Igneous rocks. They are also called Primary
rocks.
and buildings.
You will be surprised to know that one type of
rock changes to another type under certain
conditions in a cyclic manner.
This process of transformation of rock from one
to another is known as the rock cycle.
You have already learnt when the molten
magma cools, it solidifies to become Igneous
rock. These igneous rocks broken down into
small particles that are transported to form
sedimentary rocks.
When the IR & SR are subjected to heat and
pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.
The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and
BUIDING STONES
Stones have been used since older days for the
construction of
buildings,
From early days, even before the bricks were invented by the
humans, stones were used to
build dwellings.
Old roads with heavy traffic were also paved with stones.
They were used for ornamental works in important structures like
temples
places of assembly.
Stones are more permanent than most of the other natural
building materials like wood.
Most of the pre-historic monuments that remain even today
are made of stones.
Stones were preferred before the advent of concrete for the
heavy engineering constructions like
bridge piers,
harbour walls,
seaside walls and they are still used for facing work for tall
buildings.
for flooring
CLASSIFICATION OF STONES/ROCKS
The stones we use for masonry construction
must be
1. Hard
2. Durable
3. Tough
4. Sound
. Stones must be free from weathering. Soft
Geological classification :
Igneous Rocks : They are formed by cooling
of molten lava released during a volcanic
activity.
These stones are very strong and durable.
Many of the temples of Southern India are made
of Igneous rocks.
Geological cycle
Sedimentary rocks :
They are formed by sedimentation in water
followed by Intense pressure which converts
the sediments into rocks.
Ex: Limestone, Dolamite & sandstone.
Metamorphic rocks :
Metamorphic rocks are originally Igneous Rocks
or Sedimentary rocks which have changed due to
either pressure or heat or both.
Ex: Slate, marbles.
If IR is basalt the schist is formed.
Schist is also MR which is formed due to high pressure
slate is used for roofing purpose.
The following are some of the changes that can
happen by this action.
a. Sandstone into quartzite
b. Limestone into marble
c. Shale into slate
d. Ganite can change into gneiss under heat and
pressure
Stones used
Floor Paving.
In foundations of buildings in
places with high ground water
level.
Granite, Quartzite.
Procedure :
1. Place 50 gm of sample in weighing bottle and
dry to a constant weight at 105 to 110 degrees
Celsius and cool in a desicator.
W1 = Wt of SG bottle + Stopper dried constant
wt.
2. Remove the stopper of specific gravity bottle
and introduce about 15 gm of dried stone
powder from the weighing bottle into the S.G
bottle. Let W2 = wt of SG bottle + sample.
3. Remove the stopper of SG bottle and pour
distilled water up to mark about 3/4 th its
volume.
Let W3 = the wt of SG bottle + sample + water
at room temperature.
Let W4 = the wt of SG bottle + water up to mark.
SG at room temperature
(W2 W1)
(W4 W1) (W3 W2)
. The true SG is expressed as a numerical value
Strength of stone
Igneous rocks are stronger than sedimentary rocks.
Granular stones are stronger than other stones.
Stone is too strong for ordinary building construction and no
Compressive
strength
(kg/sq.cm)
Granite
770 to 1300
Syenite
870 to 1530
Diorite
870 to 1530
Basalt
1525 to 1890
Trap
3270 to 3825
Sandstone
650
Late rite
18 to 32
Limestone
540
Gneiss
2190 to 3720
Slate
770 TO 2100
.
.
.
.
.
maximum load
)
( 2 x area of center section of
sample)
rain,
dew and snow and
dry due to sun. this alternate wetting and drying goes
on and hence wear and tear of stones takes place.
Due to this weathering of external portion of stones
takes place.
c. Air: Moisture goes in to the pores of stone. Due to
strong wind. Wind carries dust particles. Organic
materials also along with moisture, which has a bad
effect on the external surface of stone.
d. Rain: Atmospheric carbondioxide gets dissolved in
water at the time of rain. This rain water effects the
limestone badly.
Hydrogen Chloride, Sulphur, Hydrogen Sulphide etc.,
get dissolved in water.
Quarrying of stones
Good stones are obtained by quarrying from solid rock
formations and not from loose boulders.
Boulders and weathered blocks of stones are not fit for
important constrictions
Taking out of stone from the natural rock by any method is
known as quarrying.
Normally, open quarrying is done for extraction of stones.
If quarrying is very deep, then it is difficult to take out
broken stone from quarry.
Hence, quarry should be done from one side.
With increase in depth, inclined passage should be
constructed so that trucks can be transport the broken
stones.
1. Digging :
2.
.
.
.
.
.
9.
10.
11.
12.
6.
noted.
There should not be any visible defect formed
and the loss in weight should be minimal.
Laboratory tests :
7. Attrition test : This is carried out in a Deval
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test.
Here we use the Dorrys testing machine.
IMPACT TEST
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BRICKS
BRICKS
Bricks have been used for all types of construction
and burning
Silica/sand
A good brick earth should contain about 50-60% of
silica
It imparts uniform shape to bricks
Its presence prevents cracking, shrinking and warping
of raw bricks
The durability depends on proper proportion of silica
Its excess destroys cohesion between particles and
makes the brick brittle
Lime
It should be present in very small quantities not exceeding
5%
It helps in fusing sand(alone infusible) which then acts as
cementing material for brick particles.
It should be very finely powdered else on burning the lumps
will convert to quicklime which expands in presence of
moisture resulting in splitting of bricks.
The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and loose its
shape
Oxide of iron
It is added in small quantity 5-6%
It helps fuse sand
Imparts red color to brick on burning
Magnesia
A small amount of MgO imparts yellow color to the brick
It decreases shrinkage
Its excess leads to decay of brick
Chemical analysis
ii. Mineralogical analysis
iii. Physical analysis
i.
calcium oxide
Besides this proportion of soluble salts.
Ex: sulphate, chloride, carbonate, nitrate etc. insoluble salts
also found out.
The presence of alkali causes the brick to swell, fuse and warp.
.
Dia (mm)
Gravel
>4.75
Sand
4.75 0.075
Silt
0.075 0.002
Clay
<0.002
soil.
Different types of minerals import different
properties to the brick.
The apparatus required for mineralogical analysis
is very costly for ordinary bricks testing can not be
done.
20 30
Clay + silt
40 65
LL
25 38
PI
7 16
Volumetric shrinkage
15 25
manufacture of bricks.
The properties of soil of different sites will be
different it is necessary to select a site whose
soil will provide good quality of bricks. It is not
possible to test the sample in the laboratory.
Then the following rough test is conducted.
1. Soil and its mixing
2. Moulding property of soil
3. Shrinkage test of soil
4. Determination of strength and quality of
bricks
places.
Sample should be collected after removing top
layer of soil.
15 kg of soil is normally collected for this
purpose.
This test is very important because quantity of
sand and water to be added for the proper
plasticity can be found out.
If the amount of sand and water required per kg
of soil is known, then total quantity can be found
easily.
Firstly remove all the gravel and stones from the
soil sample and grind the soil to a fine powder.
Natural , Artificial
DIGGING
and 4 nights.
Bricks should be burnt up to red hot.
Actually the time for burning the brick depends on
the size and shape of the brick.
Bricks should be kept in the kiln in such a way that
some space is left b/w them. This is essential for
proper burning.
After burning of the brick allow the brick to cool ,
then remove from the kiln and examine them for
shrinkage and deformation.
Sort out the brick which have lost their shape.
Those bricks which have shrunk evenly and have
not lost shape should be selected for further tests.
Clay and water are placed in the pug mill from top
mould.
. Mould is a rectangular box, in which top and
bottom portion remains open.
Hand moulding
Moulds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel,
DIFFERENT MOULDS
GROUND MOULDING
3. Drying of bricks :
. Bricks are dried in the sun after molding.
4. Burning of bricks :
. Burning of bricks must be done carefully because
Clamp burning
Advantages
Clamp
Firing Process
brick clamp
Intermittent kiln
II group :
1. Compressive strength test
2. Weathering test
External appearance :
. The slope of a good brick should be uniform and
regular and their edges must be sharp.
. There should be no cracks, air bubbles, lime
nodules or pebbles in the bricks.
. The degree of burning can be estimated from the
color of brick, although some times color of brick
misleads estimation.
. Surface of brick must be plane but neither it
should be very rough nor very smooth.
Hardness test :
if the surface of a good brick is searched by
the nail of a finger, no mark should be left on
it. Estimation of hardness can also be done
breaking the brick with hammer.
Under burnt brick will break easily where 1 st
class brick will not break easily.
Absorption test :
The amount of absorption of water is a good
indication of the degree of burning of brick.
The brick is immersed in water for 24 hrs. due
to this the weight of brick increases.
Specific gravity :
Other factors being constant, higher the specific gravity
of the brick more is the strength of the brick.
Unit weight of ordinary bricks should be 1600 to 1920
kg/cu.m
Efflorescence :
main cause of decay of bricks is the crystallization of
soluble salts.
Salts are
magnesium sulphate,
calcium sulphate,
sodium and potassium sulphate etc.
Being soluble in water these salts are deposited on the
brick surface as efflorescence as a result of wetting and
drying of the brick by rain and sun by rise and fall of
water table.
Test :
Take distilled water in a shallow vessel and dip
one end of brick in water by about 2.5 m.
If there will be efflorescence then salt will be
deposited on brick otherwise not. Test takes
about 5-7 days.
Use of high lime mortar is practiced for
reducing efflorescence some times damp proof
course is also given.
Compressive strength :
durability of brick can be estimated from the
results of compressive strength. Classification is
also done according to compressive strength.
Weathering test :
weathering test should also be cone in the laboratory to
see its effect on brick.
Defects in bricks :
1. Over burning of bricks : Due to over burning, bricks lose
canvas prevents air from entering the kiln from the wrong end
place.
At the end smoke goes out in the atmosphere
through chimney.
It takes about 24 hrs in burning the brick
completely. When one section has been burnt
fully, then fire is advanced to next section and
the burnt section is allowed to cool.
In this way process of burning, pre heating and
cooling continues to different sections of the kiln.
When one section is being burnt, another section
is being pre heated and some other section is
being cooled.
This kiln can not work in rainy season.
Hoffmans Kiln :
Hoffmans kiln is circular in plane.
Chimney placed at the center of the kiln and there
are twelve chambers around the chimney. Each
chamber has a gate so that one can communicate
from outside.
Hoffmans kiln can work continuously and hence
hot gas is always utilized. The length, breadth and
height of hoffmans kiln is 11X4.5 X 2.5 m.
About 25000 bricks can be burnt in one chamber.
In this way 3 lakh bricks can be burnt in 12 days.
80-90 lakh bricks can be burnt per year in this kiln.
HOFFMANS KILN
Advantages :
Considerable economy in fuel.
Burning is uniform and there is proper
control of temperature.
Bricks can be sent at construction site in
planned way.
%age of first class bricks is more.
Point of
compariso
n
Clamp
Initial cost
Cost of fuel
Control of
fire
Supervision
Time of
burning and
cooling
% of first
class bricks
Qualities of
brick
Uses of bricks :
Bricks are mainly used for the construction
of walls.
Bricks when molded in the shape of a gutter
can be used as drains.
Bricks with cavities known as hollow bricks
can be used for insulation purpose and
because of this light weight they are more
useful in speedy construction.
about 1 m.
Bricks should have low thermal conductivity
and should be sound proof.
Brick should not show deposits of salts when
immersed in water and dried.
The minimum crushing strength of brick must
be
3.5 N/sq.mm
Classification of bricks :
Bricks are classified based on the
manufacturing process adopted. The
classification is given as follows.
Note:
There are depressions provided in the face of
the bricks.
There are 2 reasons for the provision of frogs
To form a key with mortar to prevent sliding of
the bricks of the beds.
To reduce the weight of the brick and hence
economy in the cost of transport
The
actual
dimensions and
Size prescribed
Ordinary
bricks
Tilenominal
bricks
dimensions
as per IS
is(inch)
given in the
Metric (cm)
FPS
Metricfollowing
FPS (inch)
(cm)
table
Actual
19 x 9 x 9
8 (7/8) x 4 (3/8) x
2
19 x 19 x
4
8 (7/8) x 4
(3/8) x 1
Normal
20 x 10 x 10
9x4x3
20 x 20 x
4
9x4x1
it is laid flat
Stretcher : the side surface of the brick
visible in elevation when the brick is laid
flat
Header : the end surface of the brick when
it is laid flat
Arrises : the edge formed by the
intersection of plane surfaces of a brick
Perpends : these are vertical joints between
bricks either in longitudinal or cross
directions. Also known as cross joints
ClCCCCCCCCCassificatiCCCCCf bricks
Class I Bricks
Class II Bricks
1. General
requirements
Shall have a
uniform colour and
made slightly over
burnt. The bricks
may be slightly
distorted and have
round edges. They
shall have a time
compact and
uniform texture
and uniform
texture
Maybe slightly
under burnt or
over burnt. They
maybe distorted
and have round
edges. The defects
in uniformity or
shape shall not be
such as to cause
differently in
obtaining uniform
courses with their
use
2. Water
absorption after
24 hours
immersion in
cold water
Efflorescence
Slight
Slight
Moderate
C.S Requirements
Additional Requirements
10
10 N/mm2
Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 3%. Surface should be smooth,
corners must be sharp and should give
a clear ringing sound when struck.
7.5
7.5 N/mm2
Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.
5.0
5.0 N/mm2
Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.
3.5
3.5 N/mm2
Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.
Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional Tolerances are very important
-100kg/cm2
The minimum compressive strength of 2nd class
bricks -75kg/cm2
The main ingredients of a good quality brick earth is:
Alumina - 20-30%
Silica - 50-60%
impart plasticity.
Clay and silt content in a good brick earth must be at
least 50%.
.
.
.
.
Acid-
Resisting Bricks
These
Forsterite
Bricks
These
on its denseness.
The dead weight of a 225 mm thick wall can be
taken as 4.1 to 4.4 kN/m per meter height.
Light weight hollow bricks can be as low in weight
as only one-third the weight of a common brick.
Similarly, hollow concrete blocks cant to b e used
to reduce the dead weight of masonry in
buildings.
Brick substitutes
As bricks are made from clay excavated from the earth, the