EE 419

Satellite Communications
Fall (2015)
Lecture 1 &2
5th October, 2015

Course Outline by HEC

Introduction

to Satellite Communication,
Satellite
Link
Design,
Propagation
Characteristics of Satellite Links, Satellite
systems: Space-segment and ground
segment, Channel Modeling, Access Control
Schemes, System Performance Analysis,
System Design, Space standards, Satellite
Applications such as earth observation,
weather and communication.

Books
Timothy Pratt, Charles W. Bostian and Jeremy E. Allnutt, Satellite

Communications, Latest Edition, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 0471429120.

Tri T Ha, Digital Satellite Communications, McGraw Hill publishing
Company. Latest Edition.
Reference Books
Tom Logsden, "Mobile Communication Satellites: Theory and Applications",
McGraw-Hill, (Latest edition).
Gerald M., Michel Bousquet, "Satellite Communication Systems: Systems,
Techniques and Technologies", John Willey, (Latest Edition).
Leon W. Couch, Digital & Analog Communication Systems, Latest Edition,
Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0131424920.
Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice, Latest Edition, Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0130422320.
Jochen Schiller, Mobile Communications, Latest Edition, Addison-Wesley,
ISBN: 0321123816.
D. Roddy, Satellite Communications, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.
3

Contact Hours

Credit Hours: 3
Section A
Monday: 9am-11am (2hrs)
Thursday:12am-1pm (1hr)

Section B
Friday: 8am-10pm (2hrs)
Wednesday: 10am-11am (1hr)

Let us start

Overview of Lecture
Background(evolution and growth)
Introduction
Broadband Communication.
Why use satellite systems?
Types
Block diagram, General structure of a satellite
communication system
Services
Advantages

History
Frequency Bands, International regulation and

frequency coordination

Broadband Communication
Systems
Coaxial Cable System
Terrestrial Microwave System
Tropo Scatter System
Satellite System
Fiber-Optic Cable System

Earths atmosphere

Source: All about GPS [www.kowoma.de]

Radio wave Propagation

Ground wave/ surface wave
Ionospheric / sky wave
Tropospheric / forward scatter wave
Direct/LOS

Overview
Satellite technology has progressed tremendously

over the last 50 years since Arthur C. Clarke first

proposed its idea in 1945 in his article in Wireless
World.

Today, satellite systems can provide a variety of

services including broadband communications,

audio/video
distribution
networks,
maritime
navigation, worldwide customer service and
support as well as military command and control.

Satellite systems are also expected to play an

important role in the emerging 4G global

infrastructure providing the wide area coverage
necessary for the realization of the Optimally
Connected Anywhere, Anytime vision that drives

Basics: How do Satellites

Work
Two Stations on Earth want to communicate

through radio broadcast but are too far away to

use conventional means.

The two stations can use a satellite as a relay

station for their communication

One Earth Station sends a transmission to the

satellite. This is called a Uplink.

The satellite Transponder converts the signal and

sends it down to the second earth station. This is

called a Downlink.

Why use a satellite for

Communications?

12

Why use a satellite for

Communications?
Economical long distance communications
Broadcast capability
Wide capability
Broad coverage
Freedom from natural barriers
Better coverage of rural and underdeveloped

areas
New markets
New common carriers
New services
Customer premises services
13

Advantages of Satellites
The advantages of satellite communication

over terrestrial communication are:

The coverage area of a satellite greatly

exceeds that of a terrestrial system.

Transmission cost of a satellite is

independent of the distance from the center

of the coverage area.

Satellite to Satellite communication is very

precise.

Disadvantages of Satellites
The disadvantages of satellite
communication:
Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming

used up.
There is a larger propagation delay in

satellite communication than in terrestrial

communication.

Focus
There have been many new developments

in satellite communication technology,

however the underlying principle of
transmission of radio signals via satellites
remains the same.
New applications have been developing for

satellite communication.
New satellites and terminals have been

implementing to built new systems.

16

History and Evolution

Geo Satellite concept by Arthur Clark-1945
SPUTNIK by USSR
October 4, 1957
184 pounds
23 inches in diameter
Began the space race

SCORE by US Air Force-1959

ECHO 1 &2 by NASA and AT&T-1960
TELESTAR 1 and 2-1962
SYNCOM 1,2 and 3 by USA-1963
EARLY BIRD, first commercial GEO satellite-

1965

17

Pioneers in Satellite Communication

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857 - 1935)

Russian visionary of space flight First described the

multi-stage rocket as means of achieving orbit.

Hermann Noordung (1892 - 1929)

Postulated the geostationary orbit.

Arthur C. Clarke (1917 19 March 2008)

Postulated the entire concept of international satellite

telecommunications from geostationary satellite orbit
including coverage, power, services, solar eclipse.

Satellite History Calendar

1957
October 4, 1957: - First satellite - the Russian Sputnik 01
First living creature in space: Sputnik 02
1958
First American satellite: Explorer 01
First telecommunication satellite: This satellite broadcast a taped message: Score
1959
First meteorology satellite: Explorer 07

1960
First successful passive satellite: Echo 1
First successful active satellite: Courier 1B
First NASA satellite: Explorer 08
April 12, 1961: - First man in space
1962
First telephone communication & TV broadcast via satellite: Echo 1
First telecommunication satellite, first real-time active, AT&T: Telstar 1
First Canadian satellite: Alouette 1
On 7th June 1962 at 7:53p the two-stage rocket; Rehbar-I was successfully launched from Sonmiani Rocket Range. It carried
a payload of 80 pounds of sodium and soared to about 130 km into the atmosphere. With the launching of Rehbar-I,
Pakistan had the honour of becoming the third country in Asia and the tenth in the world to conduct such a launching after
USA, USSR, UK, France, Sweden, Italy, Canada, Japan and Israel.
Rehbar-II followed a successful launch on 9 th June 1962
1963
Real-time active: Telstar 2
1964
Creation of Intelsat
First geostationary satellite, second satellite in stationary orbit: Syncom 3
First Italian satellite: San Marco 1

Satellite History Calendar

1965
Intelsat 1 becomes first commercial comsat: Early Bird
First real-time active for USSR: Molniya 1A
1967
First geostationary meteorology payload: ATS 3
1968
First European satellite: ESRO 2B
July 21, 1969: - First man on the moon

1970
First Japanese satellite: Ohsumi
First Chinese satellite: Dong Fang Hong 01
1971
First UK launched satellite: Prospero
ITU-WARC for Space Telecommunications
INTELSAT IV Launched
INTERSPUTNIK - Soviet Union equivalent of INTELSAT formed
1974
First direct broadcasting satellite: ATS 6
1976
MARISAT - First civil maritime communications satellite service started
1977
EUTELSAT - European regional satellite
ITU-WARC for Space Telecommunications in the Satellite Service
1979
Creation of Inmarsat

Satellite History Calendar

1980
INTELSAT V launched - 3 axis stabilized satellite built by Ford Aerospace
1983
ECS (EUTELSAT 1) launched - built by European consortium supervised by ESA
1984
UK's UNISAT TV DBS satellite project abandoned
First satellite repaired in orbit by the shuttle: SMM
1985
First Brazilian satellite: Brazilsat A1
First Mexican satellite: Morelos 1
1988
First Luxemburg satellite: Astra 1A
1989
INTELSAT VI - one of the last big "spinners" built by Hughes
Creation of Panamsat - Begins Service
On 16 July 1990, Pakistan launched its first experimental satellite, BADR-I from China
1990
IRIDIUM, TRITIUM, ODYSSEY and GLOBALSTAR S-PCN projects proposed - CDMA designs more popular
EUTELSAT II
1992
OLYMPUS finally launched - large European development satellite with Ka-band, DBTV and Ku-band SS/TDMA
payloads - fails within 3 years
1993
INMARSAT II - 39 dBW EIRP global beam mobile satellite - built by Hughes/British Aerospace
1994
INTELSAT VIII launched - first INTELSAT satellite built to a contractor's design
Hughes describe SPACEWAY design
DirecTV begins Direct Broadcast to Home
1995
Panamsat - First private company to provide global satellite services.

Satellite History Calendar

1996
INMARSAT III launched - first of the multibeam mobile satellites (built by GE/Marconi)
Echostar begins Diresct Broadcast Service
1997
IRIDIUM launches first test satellites
ITU-WRC'97
1999
AceS launch first of the L-band MSS Super-GSOs - built by Lockheed Martin
Iridium Bankruptcy - the first major failure?
2000
Globalstar begins service
Thuraya launch L-band MSS Super-GSO
2001
XM Satellite Radio begins service
Pakistans 2nd Satellite, BADR-B was launched on 10 Dec 2001 at 9:15a from Baikonour Cosmodrome, Kazakistan
2002
Sirius Satellite Radio begins service
Paksat-1, was deployed at 38 degrees E orbital slot in December 2002, Paksat-1, was deployed at 38 degrees E
orbital slot in December 2002
2004
Teledesic network planned to start operation
2005
Intelsat and Panamsat Merge

VUSat OSCAR-52 (HAMSAT) Launched

2006

CubeSat-OSCAR 56 (Cute-1.7) Launched

K7RR-Sat launched by California Politechnic University

2007
Prism was launched by University of Tokyo
2008
COMPASS-1; a project of Aachen University was launched from Satish Dawan Space Center, India. It failed to
achieve orbit.

Intelsat
INTELSAT is the original "Inter-governmental Satellite organization".

It once owned and operated most of the World's satellites used for
international communications, and still maintains a substantial fleet
of satellites.
INTELSAT is moving towards "privatization", with increasing
competition from commercial operators (e.g. Panamsat, Loral
Skynet, etc.).
INTELSAT Timeline:
Interim organization formed in 1964 by 11 countries
Permanent structure formed in 1973
Commercial "spin-off", New Skies Satellites in 1998
Full "privatization" by April 2001
INTELSAT has 143 members.

Intelsat Structure

Eutelsat
Permanent General Secretariat opened September 1978
Intergovernmental Conference adopted definitive statutes with 26

members on 14 May 1982

Definitive organization entered into force on 1 September 1985
General Secretariat -> Executive Organ
Executive Council -> EUTELSAT Board of Signatories
Secretary General -> Director General
Current DG is Giuliano Berretta
Currently almost 50 members

Moving towards "privatization"

Limited company owning and controlling of all assets and activities
Also a "residual" intergovernmental organization which will ensure that

basic principles of pan-European coverage, universal service, nondiscrimination and fair competition are observed by the company

Eutelsat Structure

Communication Satellite
A Communication Satellite can be looked

upon as a large microwave repeater

It contains several transponders which
listens to some portion of spectrum,
amplifies the incoming signal and
broadcasts it in another frequency to avoid
interference with incoming signals.

Motivation to use Satellites

Satellite Missions

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

Satellite Microwave
Transmission
Satellites can relay signals over a long

distance
Geostationary Satellites
Remain above the equator at a height of

about 22300 miles (geosynchronous orbits)

Travel around the earth in exactly the same
time, the earth takes to rotate

Frequency Bands
Very low Frequency (VLF)

3kHz-30kHz

Low Frequency (LF)

30k-300kHz

Medium Frequency (MF)

300kHz-3MHz

High Frequency (HF)

3MHz-30MHz

Very High Frequency(VHF)

30MHz-300MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF)

300MHz-3GHz

Super High Frequency (SHF)

3GHz-30GHz

Extremely High Frequency

(EHF)

30GHz-300GHz

Infrared, Visible Light, UV

10e3-10e7GHz
31

Frequency Bands
Different kinds of satellites use different

frequency bands.
LBand: 1 to 2 GHz, used by MSS
S-Band: 2 to 4 GHz, used by MSS, NASA, deep space

research
C-Band: 4 to 8 GHz, used by FSS
X-Band: 8 to 12.5 GHz, used by FSS and in terrestrial
imaging, ex: military and meteorological satellites
Ku-Band: 12.5 to 18 GHz: used by FSS and BSS (DBS)
K-Band: 18 to 26.5 GHz: used by FSS and BSS
Ka-Band: 26.5 to 40 GHz: used by FSS

Types of Satellites
Satellites can be classified by their

functions and these function leads to its

designing.
Astronomy
Atmospheric
Communication
Navigation
Remote sensing
Search and Rescue
Space exploration
Weather

33

Satellite System Elements

Space Segment
Satellite Launching Phase
Transfer Orbit Phase
Deployment
Operation
TT&C - Tracking Telemetry and Command

Station
SCC - Satellite Control Center, a.k.a.:
OCC - Operations Control Center
SCF - Satellite Control Facility

Retirement Phase

Ground Segment
Collection of facilities, Users and Applications

Earth Station = Satellite Communication Station

(Fixed or Mobile)

Satellite Uplink and Downlink

Downlink
The link from a satellite down to one or more
ground stations or receivers
Uplink
The link from a ground station up to a
satellite.
Some companies sell uplink and

downlink services to

television stations, corporations, and to other

telecommunication carriers.
A company can specialize in providing
uplinks, downlinks, or both.

Satellite Uplink and Downlink

Satellite Communication

Source: Cryptome [Cryptome.org]

When using a satellite for long

distance communications, the
satellite acts as a repeater.

An earth station transmits the

signal up to the satellite
(uplink), which in turn
retransmits it to the receiving
earth station (downlink).

Different frequencies are used

for uplink/downlink.

Satellite Transmission Links

Earth stations Communicate by sending

signals to the satellite on an uplink

The satellite then repeats those signals on
a downlink
The broadcast nature of downlink makes it
attractive for services such as the
distribution of TV programs

Direct to User Services

One way Service (Broadcasting)

Two way Service (Communication)

Satellite Signals
Used to transmit signals and data over long

distances
Weather forecasting
Television broadcasting
Internet communication
Global Positioning Systems

Satellite Transmission Bands

Frequency Band

Downlink

Uplink

3,700-4,200 MHz 5,925-6,425 MHz

Ku

11.7-12.2 GHz

14.0-14.5 GHz

Ka

17.7-21.2 GHz

27.5-31.0 GHz

The C band is the most frequently used. The Ka and Ku bands are reserved
exclusively for satellite communication but are subject to rain attenuation

Types of Satellite based Networks

Based on the Satellite Altitude
GEO Geostationary Orbits
36000 Km = 22300 Miles, equatorial, High latency

MEO Medium Earth Orbits

High bandwidth, High power, High latency
LEO Low Earth Orbits
Low power, Low latency, More Satellites, Small Footprint

VSAT
Very Small Aperture Satellites
Private

WANs

Satellite System

45

Block Diagram

46

Three movements to be considered:

Earth is spinning.
Time:______
Distance:_______
Earth is revolving around sun.
Time:______
Distance:______
Our satellite is revolving around earth.
Time:???
Distance:???

47

Types of Orbits
Altitude
LEO
MEO
GEO
Shape
EO
HEO
Circular
Direction/Rotation
Retrograde
Prograde

Molniya
HAPs
48

Satellite Orbits

Source: Federation of American Scientists [www.fas.org]

Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO):

36,000 km above Earth,
includes commercial and
military communications
satellites, satellites providing
early warning of ballistic
missile launch.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):
from 5000 to 15000 km, they
include navigation satellites
(GPS, Galileo, Glonass).
Low Earth Orbit (LEO): from
500 to 1000 km above Earth,
includes military intelligence
satellites, weather satellites.

Satellite Orbits

GEO - Geostationary Orbit

In the equatorial plane
Orbital Period = 23 h 56 m 4.091 s

= 1 sidereal day*
Satellite appears to be stationary over any

point on equator:

Earth Rotates at same speed as Satellite

Radius of Orbit r = Orbital Height + Radius of Earth
Avg. Radius of Earth = 6378.14 Km

3 Satellites can cover the earth (120 apart)

NGSO - Non Geostationary Orbits

Orbit should avoid

Van Allen radiation

belts:
Region of charged

particles that can

cause damage to
satellite
Occur at

~2000-4000 km and
~13000-25000 km

LEO - Low Earth Orbits

Circular or inclined orbit with < 1400 km

altitude

Satellite travels across sky from horizon to

horizon in 5 - 15 minutes => needs handoff

Earth stations must track satellite or have Omni
directional antennas
Large constellation of satellites is needed for
continuous communication (66 satellites needed
to cover earth)
Requires complex architecture
Requires tracking at ground

HEO - Highly Elliptical Orbits

HEOs (i = 63.4) are suitable to

provide coverage at high latitudes

(including North Pole in the
northern hemisphere)
Depending on selected orbit (e.g.
Molniya, Tundra, etc.) two or three
satellites are sufficient for
continuous time coverage of the
service area.
All traffic must be periodically
transferred from the setting
satellite to the rising satellite
(Satellite Handover)

Satellite Orbits

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

Why Satellites remain in

Orbits

Geostationary Earth Orbit

(GEO)
These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km

above the earths surface along the

equator.
Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve
around the earth at the same speed as the
earth rotates. This means GEO satellites
remain in the same position relative to the
surface of earth.

GEO (cont.)
Advantages
A GEO satellites distance from earth gives it

a large coverage area, almost a fourth of the

earths surface.
GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a
particular area.
These factors make it ideal for satellite
broadcast and other multipoint applications.

GEO (cont.)
Disadvantages
A GEO satellites distance also cause it to

have both a comparatively weak signal and a

time delay in the signal, which is bad for
point to point communication.
GEO satellites, centered above the equator,
have difficulty broadcasting signals to near
polar regions

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

LEO satellites are much closer to the earth

than GEO satellites, ranging from 500 to

1,500 km above the surface.
LEO satellites dont stay in fixed position
relative to the surface, and are only visible
for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
A network of LEO satellites is necessary for
LEO satellites to be useful

LEO (cont.)
Advantages
A LEO satellites proximity to earth compared

to a GEO satellite gives it a better signal

strength and less of a time delay, which
makes it better for point to point
communication.
A LEO satellites smaller area of coverage is
less of a waste of bandwidth.

LEO (cont.)
Disadvantages
A network of LEO satellites is needed, which

can be costly
LEO satellites have to compensate for
Doppler shifts cause by their relative
movement.
Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites,
causing gradual orbital deterioration.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between

8,000 km and 18,000 km above the earths

surface.
MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in
functionality.
MEO satellites are visible for much longer
periods of time than LEO satellites, usually
between 2 to 8 hours.
MEO satellites have a larger coverage area
than LEO satellites.

MEO (cont.)
Advantage
A MEO satellites longer duration of visibility

and wider footprint means fewer satellites

are needed in a MEO network than a LEO
network.
Disadvantage
A MEO satellites distance gives it a longer

time delay and weaker signal than a LEO

satellite, though not as bad as a GEO
satellite.

Other Orbits
Molniya Orbit Satellites
Used by Russia for decades.
Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The

satellite remains in a nearly fixed position

relative to earth for eight hours.
A series of three Molniya satellites can act
like a GEO satellite.
Useful in near polar regions.

Other Orbits (cont.)

High Altitude Platform (HAP)
One of the newest ideas in satellite

communication.
A blimp or plane around 20 km above the
earths surface is used as a satellite.
HAPs would have very small coverage area,
but would have a comparatively strong
signal.
Cheaper to put in position, but would require
a lot of them in a network.

X-tics of different orbits

Altitude

Satellites
Needed For
Global
Coverage

LEO

700km to
1400km

40+

MEO

10,000km to 10-15
15,000km

GEO

36,000 km

3-4
67

Point of Consideration
Solar System (Planets revolving around sun).

Our concern-EARTH.
Different layers outside and inner side of earth.

Our concern-Outer layers.

Seven layers. Our concern-effects of these

layers in propagation of our signal

68

LEO Aggregations

69

Elliptical Orbit Aggregation

70

Representation of earth in
Longitude and Latitude
scale.

71

Review

72

Basics: How Satellites are

used
Service Types
Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
Example: Point to Point Communication
Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
Example: Satellite Television/Radio
Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).

Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)

Example: Satellite Phones

When to use Satellites

When the unique features of satellite communications

make it attractive
When the costs are lower than terrestrial routing
When it is the only solution
Examples:

Communications to ships and aircraft (especially safety

communications)
TV services - contribution links, direct to cable head,
direct to home
Data services - private networks
Overload traffic
Delaying terrestrial investments
1 for N diversity
Special events

When to use Terrestrial

PSTN - satellite is becoming increasingly

uneconomic for most trunk telephony routes
but, there are still good reasons to use
satellites for telephony such as: thin routes,
diversity, very long distance traffic and
remote locations.
Land mobile/personal communications - in
urban areas of developed countries new
terrestrial infrastructure is likely to dominate
(e.g. GSM, etc.)
but, satellite can provide fill-in as terrestrial
networks are implemented, also provide
similar services in rural areas and
underdeveloped countries

Advantages of Satellite
Communication
Can reach over large geographical area
Flexible (if transparent transponders)
Easy to install new circuits
Circuit costs independent of distance
Broadcast possibilities
Temporary applications (restoration)
Niche applications
Mobile applications (especially "fill-in")
Terrestrial network "by-pass"
Provision of service to remote or underdeveloped

areas
User has control over own network
1-for-N multipoint standby possibilities

Disadvantages of Satellite
Communication
Large up front capital costs (space segment

and launch)
Terrestrial break even distance expanding
(now approx. size of Europe)
Interference and propagation delay
Congestion of frequencies and orbits

When to use Terrestrial

PSTN - satellite is becoming increasingly

uneconomic for most trunk telephony routes
but, there are still good reasons to use
satellites for telephony such as: thin routes,
diversity, very long distance traffic and
remote locations.
Land mobile/personal communications - in
urban areas of developed countries new
terrestrial infrastructure is likely to dominate
(e.g. GSM, etc.)
but, satellite can provide fill-in as terrestrial
networks are implemented, also provide
similar services in rural areas and
underdeveloped countries

Frequency Bands Allocated to the

FSS
Frequency bands are allocated to different services at

World Radio-communication Conferences (WRCs).

Allocations are set out in Article S5 of the ITU Radio
Regulations.
It is important to note that (with a few exceptions) bands
are generally allocated to more than one radio services.
CONSTRAINTS
Bands have traditionally been divided into commercial" and

"government/military" bands, although this is not reflected

in the Radio Regulations and is becoming less clear-cut as
"commercial" operators move to utilize "government" bands.

Earths atmosphere

Source: All about GPS [www.kowoma.de]

Atmospheric Losses
Different types of atmospheric losses can

disturb radio wave transmission in satellite

systems:
Atmospheric absorption
Atmospheric attenuation
Traveling ionospheric disturbances

Atmospheric Absorption
Energy absorption by atmospheric

gases, which varies with the frequency

of the radio waves.
Two absorption peaks are observed (for
90 elevation angle):
22.3 GHz from resonance absorption in

water vapour (H2O)

60 GHz from resonance absorption in
oxygen (O2)
For other elevation angles:
[AA] = [AA]90 cosec

Source: Satellite Communications, Dennis Roddy, McGraw-Hill

Atmospheric Attenuation
Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation

(hail, ice and snow have little effect on attenuation

because of their low water content).
Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
A = L [dB]
where [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation, and can

be calculated from specific attenuation coefficients in

tabular form that can be found in a number of publications
where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal
through the rain; note that this differs from the geometric
path length due to fluctuations in the rain density.

Traveling Ionospheric
Disturbances
Traveling ionospheric disturbances are clouds

of electrons in the ionosphere that provoke

radio signal fluctuations which can only be
determined on a statistical basis.
The disturbances of major concern are:
Scintillation;
Polarisation rotation.

Scintillations are variations in the amplitude,

phase, polarisation, or angle of arrival of radio

waves, caused by irregularities in the
ionosphere which change over time.
The main effect of scintillations is fading of the
signal.

What is Polarisation?
Polarisation is the property of electromagnetic

waves that describes the direction of the

transverse electric field.
Since electromagnetic waves consist of an
electric and a magnetic field vibrating at right
angles to each other.
it is necessary to adopt a convention to
determine the polarisation of the signal.
Conventionally, the magnetic field is ignored and
the plane of the electric field is used.

Types of Polarisation
Linear Polarisation

(horizontal or vertical):
the two orthogonal

components of the electric

field are in phase;
The direction of the line in
the plane depends on the
relative amplitudes of the
two components.
Circular Polarisation:
The two components are

exactly 90 out of phase

and have exactly the same
amplitude.

Linear Polarisation Circular Polarisation

Elliptical Polarisation

Elliptical Polarisation:
All other cases.

Satellite Communications
Alternating vertical and

horizontal polarisation is
widely used on satellite
communications
This reduces interference
between programs on the
same frequency band
transmitted from adjacent
satellites (One uses vertical,
the next horizontal, and so on)
Allows for reduced angular
separation between the
satellites.
Information Resources for Telecommunication Professionals
[www.mlesat.com]