Data

Networking

Lesson 1:
Introduction to
Data Networking

Objectives
Define common network topologies and identify
structured cable distribution schemes
Identify the major industry bodies and standards, and
obtain and read standards documents
Identify the layers of the Open Systems Interconnection
reference model (OSI/RM), and describe the function of
each layer
Relate networking and convergence protocols, services
and equipment to each OSI/RM layer
Explain data encapsulation in relation to frame assembly
and function on the network
Relate common networking and convergence protocols,
services and equipment to each of the four layers of the
TCP/IP model
Data Networking

Networks Defined
Network two or more connected computers
that share data
Host a computer that participates in a
network, often providing services to other
computing systems
Most networks are:
Local area networks (LANs)
Wide area networks (WANs)

Data Networking

Data Networks
and Convergence
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is
an integral part of the Internet infrastructure
Internet Protocol (IP) telephony a technology
that uses packet-switched connections to
exchange voice, fax and other forms of data
Voice over IP (VoIP) voice information delivered
in digital form as packets of data using IP
Communications over Internet Protocol (CoIP)
a set of emerging standards defining
transmission of multimedia (text, images, video)
over the Internet

Data Networking

Networking Elements
and Models
Network elements:
Protocols communication rules on which all network
elements must agree
Transmission media media (such as cables or wireless
technologies) that enable all networking elements to
interconnect
Network services resources that all network users share
Networking models:
Mainframe centralized; all processing is performed by the
mainframe
Client/server distributed; reduces congestion by dividing
processing and storage tasks between the client and the
server
Web-based increasingly decentralized and more affordable
networking
Data Networking

Network Topologies

Data Networking

Star Topology

Switch

Server

Data Networking

Star Bus Hybrid Topology

Switch

Backbone

Data Networking

Partial Mesh Topology

Data Networking

Full Mesh Topology

Data Networking

Network Connections
and Cable Distribution
Backbone cabling used to connect LANs together
Campus distributor (CD) used between routers and
switches to connect LANs in different buildings within one
general location
Vertical cabling considered part of the backbone and
runs between floors in a multi-floor building
Building distributor (BD) the main interface between
public or private telecommunications lines coming into a
building and the internal network wiring
Horizontal wiring connects individual users to the data
or telecommunications network
Cross-connect the point at which one type of wiring or
cabling is connected with another

Data Networking

Network Connections
and Cable Distribution (cont'd)
Wiring closet a room or closet that houses all
equipment associated with telecommunications
wiring systems
Floor distributor (FD) a rack that interconnects
wiring between a BD and workstations
Patch panel a group of sockets (usually
consisting of pin locations and ports) mounted
on a rack
Punchdown block a device that connects one
group of wires to another group of wires through
a system of metal pins to which the wires are
attached
Data Networking

Networking and Telephony Standards

Organisations
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
Electronic Industries Alliance /
Telecommunications Industry Association
(EIA/TIA)
Communications Information Technology
Association (CITA)
European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI)
Data Networking

Networking and Telephony Standards

Organisations (cont'd)
Independent Committee for the Supervision of
Standards of Telephone Information Services
(ICSTIS)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Telcordia (formerly Bellcore)
Internet Society (ISOC)
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

Data Networking

OSI Reference Model

Layer
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical

Layer Number
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Data Networking

Network Communication

Data Networking

OSI Protocol Examples

Application-layer
protocols
SIP, H.323, MGCP,
SMTP, POP3, HTTP,
DNS, BOOTP, FTP,
Telnet, LDAP
Presentation-layer
protocols
ASN.1, Codecs
Session-layer protocols
RTCP, NetBIOS, SQL,
ASP

Transport-layer
protocols
RTP, TCP, UDP, ATP
Network-layer protocols
IP, ICMP, ARP, DDP
Data link-layer protocols
802.2, 802.3, 802.11
Physical layer
Network hardware or
technologies
Data Networking

Packet Creation Adding Headers

Data Networking

Data Encapsulation
Data the application, presentation and session
layers
Segment the transport layer
Packet the network layer
Frame the data link layer
Cyclical redundancy check (CRC) verifies
whether a packet is valid
Imagine a packet as a package being shipped
to you: The CRC would be considered a
packing slip or a bill of lading
Data Networking

Packets
Packet structure:
Header
Data
Trailer

Header

Data

Trailer

Data Networking

Introduction to TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) the current de facto standard for both
local and wide area networking
TCP/IP four-layer model:
Application layer interacts with the
transport-layer protocols to send or receive
data
Transport layer provides the flow of
information between two hosts
Network/Internet layer addresses and routes
packets on TCP/IP networks
Link/network access layer accepts higherlayer packets, creates frames and transmits
them over the attached network
Data Networking

TCP/IP Model vs. OSI Model

Data Networking

Summary
Define common network topologies and identify
structured cable distribution schemes
Identify the major industry bodies and standards, and
obtain and read standards documents
Identify the layers of the Open Systems Interconnection
reference model (OSI/RM), and describe the function of
each layer
Relate networking and convergence protocols, services
and equipment to each OSI/RM layer
Explain data encapsulation in relation to frame assembly
and function on the network
Relate common networking and convergence protocols,
services and equipment to each of the four layers of the
TCP/IP model
Data Networking

Lesson 2:
Transmission, Communication
and Wiring

Objectives
Compare and contrast the use of E-carrier,
T-carrier, SONET/SDH and ISDN technologies for
data and voice networks, including bandwidths
of common technologies
Identify cable terminators
Define and contrast data communications
equipment (DCE) and data terminating
equipment (DTE)
Identify network media, and identify proper
cabling procedures in specific environments
Compare and contrast straight-through,
crossover, rolled and null-modem cabling
Data Networking

Transmission Types
Synchronous transmission
Access device and network device share a clock
Asynchronous transmission
No clock in the transmission media
Data transmission flow
Simplex data travels in only one direction
Half duplex data travels in two directions, but in only
one direction at a time
Full duplex data travels in two directions
simultaneously
Baseband and broadband transmissions
Baseband uses entire media bandwidth for a single
channel
Broadband divides the media bandwidth into multiple
channels, and each channel carries a separate signal
Data Networking

Digital Signaling
Digital signal level zero (DS0) the basic level of
digital communication upon which all other
digital signaling levels are built
Digital Signal Hierarchy (DSH) an electrical (as
opposed to optical) hierarchy used to classify
the speed capacities of multiplexed lines
T-carrier system a North American high-speed
digital carrier system used to transmit data
E-carrier system a European high-speed digital
carrier system used to transmit data in almost
all countries outside the United States, Canada
and Japan
Data Networking

Digital Signaling

(cont'd)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) a

completely digital service capable of carrying
voice, fax, imaging or data communications
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) a North
America high-speed fiber-optic system for
optical transmissions
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) an
international high-speed fiber-optic system for
optical transmissions

Data Networking

DSH and
T-Carrier Equivalents

Data Networking

T-Carrier vs. E-Carrier Speeds

Data Networking

Integrated Services Digital Network

(ISDN)
ISDN configurations:
2B+D also known as Basic Rate Interface
(BRI). Intended for home use. Uses two 64Kbps B channels and one 16-Kbps Dchannel
23B+1D available in the United States and
Japan. Intended for business use. Designed
for 23 B channels plus one D channel
30B+2D also known as Primary Rate
Interface (PRI). Available in Europe. Intended
for business use. Designed for 30 B channels
and two D channels

Data Networking

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Data Networking

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Data Networking

Benefits of Using SONET/SDH

It is possible to use multiplexers and routers to
combine different data lines and streams onto
one line
One heterogeneous network can communicate
with another distant heterogeneous network
T1
Line
E3
Line
DS4
Line

Multiplexer

SDH
Line

Data Networking

Common Peripheral Ports

Serial ports
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
FireWire (IEEE 1394)
Parallel ports
PS/2 connectors
Small computer system interface (SCSI)
Amphenol connectors

Data Networking

Serial Ports
Serial ports are computer sockets that connect
serial devices to a computer
Use two types of connectors:
DB-9 (9-pin) usually COM1
DB-25 (25-pin) usually COM2 and used for
modem

Data Networking

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB interface may replace serial and parallel ports
USB allows up to 127 devices to be daisy-chained
using one USB port
Two USB standards:
USB 1.0 offers transfer rate of 12 Mbps for fast
devices (and 1.5 Mbps for slow devices)
USB 2.0 offers transfer rate of up to 480 Mbps
Two USB connectors:
Type A is rectangular and relatively small. All
permanent connections use the Type A connector
Type B is square and is only used for devices that
use a separate cable
Data Networking

FireWire (IEEE 1394)

A serial bus especially popular for attaching
video devices to computers
Allows up to 63 devices to be daisy-chained
Supports hot swapping
Guarantees bandwidth for multimedia
Two FireWire versions:
IEEE 1394a supports data transfer rates of up
to 400 Mbps
IEEE 1394b supports data transfers of 800 to
1,200 Mbps

Data Networking

Parallel Ports
Parallel ports are computer sockets that connect
a printer or any other parallel device to a
computer
Enhanced using the IEEE 1284 standard, which
provides bi-directional transfers and increased
speeds
Parallel cables can be 32 feet long

Data Networking

PS/2 connectors
Used to connect a keyboard or a mouse to a
computer
6-pin circular connector
Used on all laptops and PCs

Data Networking

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

SCSI is a parallel interface that allows two
devices to communicate at the same time
Allows seven to 15 devices to be daisy-chained
Last device in a daisy chain must have a SCSI
terminator
Three types of SCSI connectors:
25-pin (SCSI-1)
50-pin (SCSI-2)
68-pin (SCSI-3)

Data Networking

Amphenol Connectors
Often used in
patch cables for
connecting 66
and 110
punchdown
blocks

Data Networking

Transmission Media
Free

space transmission media:

Infrared
Short-range wireless
Microwave
Satellite
Cable transmission media:
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber-optic cable

Data Networking

Free Space Transmission

Infrared (IR) wireless communication in which
signals are sent via light waves that are longer than
those of the visible light spectrum
Short-range wireless used for networking PCs and
for connecting a PC to peripherals
The most common standard for peripheral device
communications is Bluetooth
Microwave signals sent by line-of-sight transmission
via parabolic antennas mounted on towers
Satellite transmits information between two stations
that are not within the line of sight of each other

Data Networking

Twisted-Pair Cable
Maximum segment length of 100 metres
Available in two basic types:
Shielded (STP) twisted copper wrapped in a
metal sheath; more difficult to install and
maintain than UTP
Unshielded (UTP) most common; less expensive
than STP, but prone to electromagnetic
interference
STP and UTP are available in two varieties:
Stranded most common; flexible and easy to
handle around corners and objects
Solid can span longer distances, but less flexible
and will break if bent multiple times
Data Networking

Twisted-Pair Categories
Category

Description

Used for voice only, not data

4 Mbps; used for voice and data

10 Mbps; standard station wire

16 Mbps; used for voice

100 Mbps; Ethernet and Fast Ethernet

5e

Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet;

largely replaces Cat 5

Gigabit Ethernet; more fragile than

other categories of twisted pair

1 Gbps; will replace coax cable

because it can support cable TV
Data Networking

Twisted-Pair Cable Types

Straight-through cable the transmit wires on
one end of the cable connect to the transmit
wires on the opposite end of the cable
Crossover cable the transmit wires on one end
will connect to the receiving wires on the other
end, and vice versa
Rolled cable a serial cable in which one end of
the cable is wired as the mirror image of the
other end
Null-modem cable an RS-232 serial cable in
which the transmit and receive lines are crosslinked
Data Networking

Coaxial Cable
Used for video and communication networks
Provides higher bandwidth than twisted-pair
cable
Designed for baseband, broadband and
television networks
Supports data transfer rates from 1 Mbps to
100 Mbps
Transfer rate of 10 Mbps common for LAN
Common types: RG-6, RG-11, RG-59
Uses the F-type connector:

Data Networking

Common Coax Cable Types

Type

Segment Length

Use

RG-6

N/A

TV and video; similar to RG59 but for longer distances

RG-11

500 m

Broadband LAN connections

RG-59

305 m

Cable TV, video; often for

short distances (e.g., 6 feet)

Data Networking

Fiber-Optic Cable
Sends data as pulses of light over threads of glass
Transfer rates in the gigabits-per-second range
Transmissions can travel for miles without
attenuation
Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Two major types:
Single-mode fiber (SMF) offers extremely high
bandwidth and long distances (up to 70 km)
Multimode fiber (MMF) allows for use of
inexpensive light sources and used for short
distances (less than 200 m); typically specified
for LANs and WANs
Data Networking

Fiber-Optic Connectors
ST (straight tip) connector connects one optical
fiber using a one-piece bayonet mounting
system; widely implemented in commercial wiring
SC (subscriber or standard) connector connects
fiber-optic cable using a plug and socket with a
push-pull latch
Fiber LC (local) connector half the size of a
standard ST or SC connector; designed to save
space on patch panels
MT-RJ (mechanical transfer registered jack)
about the same shape and size as an RJ-45, and
can be used with single-mode or multimode fiber
Data Networking

Proper Cabling Procedures

When pulling cable:
Ensure that you have cleared a proper path
Avoid sharp bends in the cable
Take care to eliminate sharp edges in
conduits and other areas where cable might
get worn or cut
Make sure that wiring does not interfere with
mechanical equipment
Avoid passing wire close to fluorescent lights

Data Networking

Proper Cabling Procedures

(cont'd)

The standard jacket of a UTP or STP cable is

made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which if
burned creates toxic polyvinyl chloride gas
Two options to PVC cabling are available:
Encase the cable in a protective metal
conduit
Use limited combustible cabling, which has a
Teflon or Kevlar jacket

Data Networking

Summary
Compare and contrast the use of E-carrier,
T-carrier, SONET/SDH and ISDN technologies for
data and voice networks, including bandwidths
of common technologies
Identify cable terminators
Define and contrast data communications
equipment (DCE) and data terminating
equipment (DTE)
Identify network media, and identify proper
cabling procedures in specific environments
Compare and contrast straight-through,
crossover, rolled and null-modem cabling
Data Networking

Lesson 3:
LANs and WANs

Objectives
Relate networking and convergence protocols,
services and equipment to each OSI/RM layer
Identify the functions of routers, switches,
firewalls, core and edge networks, modems and
hubs in relation to data networking hardware
Explain the format and function of Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses
Define the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
Define networking methods, standards and
protocols, and their characteristics
Explain the concept of protocol tunneling, and
identify elements and benefits of using a Virtual
Private Network (VPN) in a convergent network
Data Networking

Objectives

(cont'd)

Identify wireless networking equipment

functionality and standards
Identify and describe common security issues
inherent to wireless networks
Explain the functions of Wired Equivalent
Privacy (WEP), 802.11i/WiFi Protected Access
(WPA), 802.1x and Remote Authentication DialIn User Service (RADIUS)
Identify critical settings in an access point (AP)
Describe wireless client settings, including
authentication, encryption, preferred networks,
channels
Data Networking

Basics of LANs and WANs

Local area network (LAN):
A group of computers connected by
transmission media within a confined
geographic area
Often consists of workstations and servers
Wide area network (WAN):
A group of computers connected over an
expansive geographic area, such as a state or
country
Often connects two LANs using the
communications lines of a public carrier, such
as the PSTN
Data Networking

Common Network Components

Network interface
card (NIC)
Repeaters
Hubs
Bridges
Routers

Switches
Gateways
Network termination
equipment (NTE)
Firewalls
Modems

Data Networking

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Makes the physical connection between the
computer and the network cabling
Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI/RM
Requires a device driver
Every NIC has a MAC address
Can be attached to a computer by:
PCI card
PCMCIA card
USB
FireWire
Wireless
Data Networking

Protocols and the NIC

Network Device Interface Specification (NDIS) and
Open Data-Link Interface (ODI):
Allow a NIC to be chosen independently from
the protocols, network operating system
(NOS) or applications that will be used
Enable multiple protocols to be bound to a
single NIC
Enable the use of multiple NICs in the same
computer
Note: ODI is similar to NDIS but was defined by
Novell and Apple to simplify driver development
Data Networking

MAC Addresses
Unique addresses that are burned on a NIC by the
manufacturer
Use 12 hexadecimal digits to form a 48-bit
address

Organisationally Unique Identifier (OUI) identifies

the vendor that created the NIC
Interface Serial Number a number unique to the
vendor
Data Networking

Repeaters
Repeat or regenerate the electronic signal from
one LAN cable to another, extending the range
of the signal
Operate at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the
OSI/RM

Data Networking

Hubs
Connect multiple devices into the same collision
domain
Operate at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the
OSI/RM
Hub

Hub

Data Networking

Bridges
Filter frames to determine whether a specific
frame belongs on a local segment or another
LAN segment
Connect networks with the same or different
data link protocols
Operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI/RM
Independent of all upper-layer protocols
Largely replaced by switches in modern
Ethernet networks because switches are faster

Data Networking

Routers
Forward, or route, data from one network to
another
Operate at the network layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI/RM
Instead of using MAC addresses, routers use IP
or IPX addresses to forward or route data from
one network to another
Router

Network
1

Network
2
Data Networking

Switches
Direct the flow of information from one node to
another
Operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI/RM
Types of switches:
Layer 1 connects individual systems
Layer 2 forwards traffic based on MAC
addresses
Layer 3 connects networks
Layer 4 forwards traffic between source and
destination hosts
Data Networking

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

Redundancy in a network eliminates the possibility
of single points of failure
STP identifies one switch from each pair of
redundant switches as the designated switch
STP allows switches to communicate with one
another to bypass a failed switch
STP is defined in the IEEE 802.1d standard
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) an evolved
version of 802.1d, which allows for faster spanningtree convergence after a network topology change
GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP) a protocol
that allows for automatic configuration of switches in
a VLAN environment
Data Networking

Benefits of Using Switches

Simple installation Unplug connections from
existing devices and plug the connections into
the switch ports
Higher speeds Switches allow full bandwidth
between any two users or segments
More server bandwidth Servers can connect
directly to switches
Creation of virtual LANs (VLANs) VLANs allow
you to organise systems according to their
logical functions on the network, as opposed to
their physical locations
More default security Using a VLAN, you can
isolate individual systems
Data Networking

Gateways
Also called protocol converters
Can operate from the transport layer (Layer 4)
through the application layer (Layer 7) of the
OSI/RM
Convert one protocol stack into another
Can be used to connect networks with dissimilar
protocols or architectures
Note: Do not confuse a gateway (protocol
converter) with a default gateway (router)

Data Networking

Network Termination
Equipment (NTE)
The location where customer data or telephone
equipment connects to external lines from the
carrier
Protects the public and private networks from
power spikes
Provides a testing interface
Converts the carrier's signals into signals for use
on the LAN
Provides timing information
Performs multiplexing and signaling

Data Networking

CSU/DSU
Channel Service Unit / Data (or Digital) Service
Unit
Terminates physical connections
Required when using dedicated circuits such as
T1 lines
Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the
OSI/RM
Telecom
Network
CSU/DSU

Router

Network

Data Networking

Firewall
A secure computer system placed between a
trusted network and an untrusted one, such as
the Internet
Acts as a barrier against potential malicious
activity
Allows a door for people to communicate
between a secured network and the open,
unsecured network
A network firewall is most commonly placed
between a corporate LAN and the Internet

Data Networking

Modems
Traditionally, a modem is a device that enables
computers to communicate over phone lines by
translating digital data into audio/analogue
signals and then back into digital form
Modem now refers to any device that adapts a
computer to a phone line or cable TV network,
whether it is digital or analogue
Analogue modems translate digital data into
analogue signals and then back into digital form
DSL and cable modems are all-digital

Data Networking

IEEE LAN Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) an organisation of professionals that
creates standards for computers and
communications
IEEE 802 network standards:
IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
function
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.3u Fast Ethernet
IEEE 802.3z and 802.3ab Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.3ae (supplement) 10-Gigabit
Ethernet
Data Networking

WAN Methods
and Standards

X.25
Fast packet switching
Frame relay
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
Peer-to-peer networking
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)

Data Networking

X.25
Defines how connections between user devices
and network devices are established and
maintained
Implemented at the network layer (Layer 3) of
the OSI/RM
Uses two types of virtual circuits:
Switched virtual circuit (SVC) a temporary
connection used for sporadic data transfers
Permanent virtual circuit (PVC) a
permanently established connection used for
frequent and consistent data transfers
Data Networking

Fast Packet Switching

Tasks such as error correction, packet
sequencing and acknowledgments are not
performed by the network
Implemented at the MAC sublayer of the OSI/RM
data link layer (Layer 2)
Technologies include frame relay and
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

Data Networking

Frame Relay
A packet-switching technology used for WANs
and LAN-to-LAN connections that supports data
and voice
Organises data into variable-length packets
called frames

Data Networking

Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM)
A cell-switching or cell-relay technology
ATM replaces variable-length packets with
uniform 53-octet cells
Primarily a connection-oriented service that
supports real-time voice and video, as well as
data
Can transport both connection and
connectionless services
Performs at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI/RM

Data Networking

Peer-to-Peer
Networking
A networking model in which each computer has
both client and server capabilities
P2P is a peer-to-peer network on the Internet
P2P advantages:
Cost Because P2P networks are used on the
Internet, an existing, reliable infrastructure is
already in place
Reliability Clients use their own network
connections, creating a reliable network
Load distribution Clients download files from
multiple locations, which helps keep any one
location from being overburdened
Data Networking

Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP)
A communications protocol that allows a
computer to connect to the Internet over a
phone line
Used to send and receive IP data packets using
a modem
Enables TCP/IP to run on a Layer 1 link
Multilink Point-to-Point Protocol (MLPPP)
combines two PPP connections into one, thereby
enabling a higher transmission speed

Data Networking

Point-to-Point Protocol
over Ethernet (PPPoE)
A communications protocol based on PPP that is
used with direct Internet connections
Enables a point-to-point connection using
Ethernet as the transport
Used mainly with ADSL services

Data Networking

Remote Access Concepts

Term

Description

Connection
medium

The physical connection method used in any

given network

Remote access
server

A dedicated server or collection of servers

configured to accept connections

Perimetre

The outer edge of the network, as defined by

a firewall

Topology

The physical layout of a particular network

Firewall

A dedicated device that helps create a

network perimetre by filtering out packets

Data Networking

Remote Access Methods

Term

Description

Virtual Private Network

(VPN)

The use of encryption to establish a

dedicated, encrypted connection
between two hosts

Remote Authentication
Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS)

A means of centralizing
authentication information in dial-up
connections

IPsec

A series of protocols and methods

designed to encrypt transmissions
between hosts at the network layer
(Layer 3) of the OSI/RM

IEEE 802.1x

A method for securing wireless

networks by centralizing
authentication between multiple
wireless access points

Data Networking

Authentication
and Authorization
Authentication the process of determining the
identity of a user, a network host or an
application process
Authorization the act of recognizing an
authenticated user, network host or process
defined on a particular host or authentication
system

Data Networking

Encryption
A security technique designed to prevent access
to information by converting it into a scrambled
(unreadable) form of text
Three encryption models:
Symmetric-key
Asymmetric-key
Hash

Data Networking

Symmetric-Key (Single-Key) Encryption

One key is used to encrypt and decrypt
messages
All parties must know and trust one another
completely, and have confidential copies of the
key
Three most common symmetric algorithms:
Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Triple DES
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

Data Networking

Asymmetric-Key (Public-Key) Encryption

Uses a key pair in the encryption process
Key pair a mathematically matched key set in
which one key encrypts and the other key
decrypts
One of these keys is made public, whereas the
other is kept private
Two most common asymmetric-key algorithms:
Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (RSA)
Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)

Data Networking

Hash (One-Way) Encryption

Uses an algorithm to convert information into a
fixed, scrambled bit of code
Any data that has been run through a hash
algorithm cannot be decrypted
Two most common hash algorithm families:
Message Digest (MD)
MD2
MD4
MD5
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)

Data Networking

Services Provided by Encryption

Service

Explanation

Method

Data
confidentiality

Ensures that only the

intended recipients of
information can view it

Symmetric-key,
asymmetric-key

Data integrity

Applies digital signatures

to ensure that data is not
illicitly decrypted

Hash

Authentication

Proves identity

Asymmetric-key,
in conjunction with
hash

Nonrepudiation

Proves that a transaction

has, in fact, occurred

Asymmetric-key,
hash

Data Networking

Digital Certificates and

Digital Signatures
Digital certificates are small files that provide
authoritative identification
A certificate authority (CA) verifies the legitimacy of a
digital certificate
Digital certificates contain digital signatures, which are
unique identifiers that authenticate messages
Digital signatures provide the following services:
Authentication
Non-repudiation
Data integrity
Note: Digital signatures do not provide data
confidentiality
Data Networking

Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs)
VPN is an encrypted tunnel that provides secure,
dedicated access between two hosts across an
unsecured network
Three types of VPNs:
Workstation-to-server
Firewall-to-firewall
Workstation-to-workstation

Data Networking

VPNs and
Protocol Tunneling
Tunneling protocol a protocol that encapsulates
data packets into other network packets
Tunneling Component

Description

Passenger protocol

The protocol being placed into the

encrypted tunnel

Encapsulation protocol

Responsible for properly encrypting

data to provide confidentiality and
integrity

Transport protocol

Carries the tunnel packets that contain

the passenger protocol(s)

Data Networking

Point-to-Point
Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
Used to create VPN connections between a
client and a centralized server
Capable of tunneling and encrypting
connections across multiple networks
PPTP works at the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI/RM
PPTP supports only IP

Data Networking

Layer 2 Tunneling
Protocol (L2TP)
Primarily used to support VPNs over the Internet
for non-TCP/IP protocols
L2TP is an open standard
L2TP uses enhanced compression techniques
L2TP supports various network types
L2TP supports RADIUS and many different
protocols
L2TP does not provide encryption by itself

Data Networking

IP Security (IPsec)
An IETF standard that provides packet-level
encryption, authentication and integrity between
firewalls or between hosts in a LAN
Contains two elements:
Authentication Header (AH) signs the
packets to ensure authentication and data
integrity
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
encrypts the data payload
Two connection modes:
Tunnel mode the header and the data
packet are encrypted
Transport mode only data is encrypted
Data Networking

VPN Benefits
Expand connectivity VPNs allow you to use the
Internet to log on to an internal network
Save money Companies can implement VPNs
between their remote offices and eliminate the
use of expensive private leased lines
Improve security VPN transmissions are
usually encrypted
Support telecommuting Users can securely log
on to the corporate network from home

Data Networking

VPN Vulnerabilities
Man-in-the-middle attacks Weak VPN
connections are vulnerable to attempts to alter
messages in transit
Old access accounts and permissions VPN
servers use their own accounts databases; old
accounts may be present, which could allow
unauthorised access to the network
Access from unsecured systems Remote
systems may present a new infection source to
the network
Security dependent on VPN clients If
employees use unsecured connections at their
end, network privacy and security can become
compromised
Data Networking

Wireless Technologies
Enable the operation of mobile phones and
wireless network connections
Schemes for allocating channels in a mobile
network:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
divides the frequency band into channels,
each of which can carry a voice conversation
or data
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) allows
several users to share the same frequency
channel
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
assigns a unique code to each voice call
Data Networking

Global System for

Mobile Communications (GSM)
A digital cellular phone technology that supports
voice and short message service
Based on TDMA
Currently the most popular mobile phone
system in the world

Data Networking

General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS)
Mobile data service used for wireless AP access,
short message service, and Internet access
Three capability classes:
Class A device can be connected to GPRS
service and GSM service, and can use both at
the same time
Class B device can be connected to GPRS
and GSM service, but can use only one or the
other at a given time
Class C device is connected to either GPRS
or GSM service
Data Networking

WiFi and
Dual Cell Phones
WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) generically refers to any
type of 802.11 wireless network
WiFi provides high-speed data connections
between mobile devices and WiFi access points
using short-range wireless transmissions
Dual cell phones phones that can use both a
cell network and a WiFi network

Data Networking

Wireless Signals
Wireless networks use the following types of
spread spectrum transmissions:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
changes the frequency of a transmission at
regular intervals
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
signal is spread over the entire band at once
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) splits a signal into smaller subsignals that are transmitted simultaneously
on different frequencies

Data Networking

Wireless
Networking Modes
Ad-hoc systems use only their NICs to connect
with each other
Infrastructure systems connect via a
centralized wireless access point (AP)
Ad hoc
Mode

Infrastructure
Mode

Wireless node

Access Point
Wireless node

Wireless node
Wireless node

Wireless node

Ethernet Switch

Wireless node

Data Networking

Wireless
Ethernet Equipment
Essential wireless Ethernet elements include:
Wireless NIC
Wireless access point (AP)
Configuration software
Antenna
Beacon
Service Set Identifier (SSID)

Data Networking

IEEE 802.11
Wireless Standards
802.11 (WiFi) original specification providing for data rates
of 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band using either FHSS
or DSSS
802.11a operates at 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band; uses
OFDM
802.11b operates at 11 Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band; uses
DSSS
802.11e provides Quality of Service (QoS) standards for
wireless networks
802.11g operates at up to 54 Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band;
uses OFDM or DSSS
802.11h solves problems with wireless networks operating
in the 5-GHz band from interfering with satellites and radar
802.11i specifies wireless security enhancements

Data Networking

Wireless Network
Security Issues
Common security problems with wireless networks
include:
Cleartext transmissions
Access control
Unauthorised APs and wireless systems
Corporate users participating in ad hoc
networks
Weak and/or flawed encryption
Encryption and network traffic
War driving

Data Networking

Wireless Network
Security Solutions
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encrypts all
data packets sent between wireless clients and
the AP
MAC address filtering limits access to your
network by configuring the AP to allow only
certain system MAC addresses to communicate
with the rest of the network
WiFi Protected Access (WPA) a specification of
security enhancements for WiFi networks
IEEE 802.1x authenticates users who want to
access 802.11x wireless networks
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS) a popular method for centralizing
remote user access
Data Networking

Wireless Network
Configuration Settings
Access point settings:
SSID
Channel
Broadcast of SSID frames
Authentication mode either open or shared
key
Keys for shared key access, if shared key
authentication is to be used
Encryption level 40-bit, 64-bit, 128-bit or
256-bit
Data Networking

Wireless Network
Configuration Settings (cont'd)
Wireless client settings:
The networks to which you want to connect
The channel used by each network
The authentication mode (whether open or
shared key) used by the access point
Security settings, which include a shared key
(if shared-key authentication is used) and the
encryption level

Data Networking

Attaching an Access Point

to a Wired Network
A wireless access point also has an RJ-45 plug
that allows you to attach it to a standard, wired
Ethernet network
All wireless clients will then be able to access all
of the services available to standard Ethernet
clients

Data Networking

Summary
Relate networking and convergence protocols,
services and equipment to each OSI/RM layer
Identify the functions of routers, switches,
firewalls, core and edge networks, modems and
hubs in relation to data networking hardware
Explain the format and function of Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses
Define the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
Define networking methods, standards and
protocols, and their characteristics
Explain the concept of protocol tunneling, and
identify elements and benefits of using a Virtual
Private Network (VPN) in a convergent network
Data Networking

Summary

(cont'd)

Identify wireless networking equipment

functionality and standards
Identify and describe common security issues
inherent to wireless networks
Explain the functions of Wired Equivalent
Privacy (WEP), 802.11i/WiFi Protected Access
(WPA), 802.1x and Remote Authentication DialIn User Service (RADIUS)
Identify critical settings in an access point (AP)
Describe wireless client settings, including
authentication, encryption, preferred networks,
channels
Data Networking

Lesson 4:
TCP/IP Suite and
Internet Addressing

Objectives
Identify common ports and services
Define common internal and external routing protocols, and
distinguish between internal and external routing protocol
functions
Explain dynamic, static and default routes, and describe the
function of routing tables
Compare and contrast connection-oriented and
connectionless transport
Define and identify well-known, registered and
random/dynamic ports
Compare and contrast the IPv4 and IPv6 address formats
Determine the network address/number when given a host
address and subnet mask
Identify network, host and broadcast addresses
Define unicasting, broadcasting, multicasting and
anycasting
Data Networking

Objectives

(cont'd)

Explain private network addressing

Identify the importance of the subnet mask
Identify the subnet mask by bit count and by dotted
decimal notation, and define Classless Interdomain Routing
(CIDR)
Determine the number of host addresses in a subnet
Describe the impact of proxies on convergent network
communications
Explain Network Address Translation (NAT)
Identify Domain Name System (DNS) features and functions
Explain functions and benefits of automatic addressing
including protocol steps, and troubleshooting handsets, PCs
and all IP-enabled devices
Determine which Internet Protocol (IP) version to
implement (e.g., IPv4 vs. IPv6)
Data Networking

TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) allows computers from different
vendors with various operating systems and
capabilities to communicate
Internet Protocol (IP) address The numerical
address assigned to a specific computer that
uniquely identifies and distinguishes a node
from any other node on the Internet

Data Networking

TCP/IP Architecture

Data Networking

Introduction to Routing
Routing the process of selecting a path over
which to send packets in a network
Router a device that routes data packets
between networks based on network-layer
addresses
The network layer (Layer 3) performs the
routing function
Two general classifications:
Direct routing
Indirect routing

Data Networking

Direct vs. Indirect Routing

Direct routing when two computers on the
same physical network need to communicate,
the packets do not require a router
Indirect routing When two computers that are
not on the same physical network need to
communicate, they must send the IP packet to a
router for delivery because they are located on
remote networks

Data Networking

The Routing Process

Routing involves the following two key elements:
The host must know which router to use for a
given destination; the router is determined by
the default gateway
The router must know where to send the
packet; the destination is determined by the
router's routing information table

Data Networking

Routing Information Tables

Routing information table a database
maintained by a router
Contains the location of all networks in relation
to the router's location
Router2
Routing Information Table
Network
X
Y
Z

Router
Router1
Router2
Router3

Hops
2
1
2

Network X

Network Z
Router1

Router2

Router3

Network Y

Data Networking

Static vs. Dynamic Routing

Static router contains a routing information
table that must be built and updated manually
by a system administrator
Dynamic router communicates with other
dynamic routers to calculate routes
automatically using routing protocols such as
RIP and OSPF
Default route the network route used by a
router when no other known route exists for a
given destination IP address

Data Networking

Internal vs. External

Routing Protocols
Internal routing protocols used within an
organisations network
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
External routing protocols used outside an
organisations network
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Data Networking

Distance-Vector
Routing Protocols
Distance-vector routing protocol designed to
allow a router to inform neighbouring routers
about the contents of its routing table
Four common distance-vector routing protocols:
Routing Information Protocol 2 (RIPv2)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(EIGRP)
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Data Networking

Link-State
Routing Protocols
Link-state routing protocol gathers network
statistics to create a network map so that
routing tables can be altered accordingly
Two common link-state routing protocols:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol v4 (BGPv4)

Data Networking

Internet Group
Management Protocol (IGMP)
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
used on routers that support multicast groups
Multicast a transmission that is sent to a group
of network hosts via a single IP address
IP hosts use IGMP to register their membership
in a multicast group

Data Networking

Data Fragmentation and the Maximum

Transmission Unit (MTU)
Data fragmentation if a packet is too large for
any of the routers encountered along the way,
the oversized packets will be fragmented
Maximum transmission unit (MTU) the
maximum size of a packet or frame on the
network; most networks impose a limit on bytes
of data per packet

Data Networking

Connection-Oriented
vs. Connectionless Protocols
Connection-oriented protocols gain a system's
attention, prepare it to receive information, then
send the information
An example of a connection-oriented protocol
is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Connectionless protocols rely on a besteffort technology that sends the information,
hoping that it will reach the other system
An example of a connectionless protocol is
Internet Protocol (IP)

Data Networking

Port Numbers
Port Number
Range

Description

Uses

0 to 1023

Well-known
(reserved) port
numbers

Used by TCP and UDP to

identify well-known services
that a host can provide

1024 to 49151

Registered port
numbers

Any process or user can

open this range of ports

49152 to 65535

Dynamic port
numbers

Any client-side application

can open these ports
randomly when accessing
remote hosts

Data Networking

Internet Addressing
Internet addresses are specified by four fields,
separated by periods:
field1.field2.field3.field4
Each field represents one byte of data, and has
a value ranging from 0 to 255
In a dotted quad IP address, the first set of
numbers on the left represents the largest
network; the last number in the address (on the
far right) identifies the specific computer
Data Networking

Decimal vs. Binary Format

To determine the value of an Internet address,
you must convert from decimal to binary
Bit
Value

128

64

32

16

If the binary value of an IP address is 01111001,

you can determine the decimal value by adding
the corresponding bit values that equal 1
01111001 = 0 + 64 + 32 +16 +8 +0 +0 +1
=121
Data Networking

Decimal vs. Hexadecimal

The hexadecimal numbering system uses the
digits 0 through 9, and the letters A through F
A=10; B=11; C=12; D=13; E=14; F=15

Data Networking

Internet Address Classes

Class A: Range 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Starting
Binary
Value

0 Network (1 byte)

Host (3 bytes)

126 Networks

16,777,214 Hosts

Class B: Range 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

Starting
Binary
Value

1 0

Network (2 bytes)
16,384 Networks

Host (2 bytes)
65,534 Hosts

Class C: Range 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

Starting
Binary
Value

1 1 0

Network (3 bytes)

Host (1 byte)

2,097,152 Networks

254 Hosts

Class D: Range 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Starting
Binary
Value

1 1 1 0

Multicastingnetwork (4 bytes)

Class E: Range 240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255

Starting
Binary
Value

1 1 1 1 0

Experimental/reserved for future use

Data Networking

Internet Address Classes

(cont'd)

Class A range 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

Class B range 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C range 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D range 224 to 239 (network address
only)
Class E range 240 to 247 (network address
only reserved for future use)

Data Networking

IP Addressing Rules
Loopback address
127 address range
Broadcast address
255
Network address
If the host portion of an IP address is all zeros,
then that address is a network address
Special-case source address
0.0.0.0 used for requesting an IP address from a
DHCP or BOOTP server
Multicasting
Allows a device to send to a group of devices
through one IP address
Data Networking

Private IP Addressing
Private network addresses are not
Internet-addressable
Class

Private IP Address Range

Subnet Mask

Class A

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

255.0.0.0

Class B

172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

255.240.0.0

Class C

192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

255.255.0.0

Data Networking

Subnetworks
Subnetworks offer a way to organise hosts
within a network into logical groups
Subnet masks:
Distinguish the network and host portions of
an IP address
Specify whether a destination address is local
or remote
ANDing is a function that a computer uses with
its local IP address and local subnet mask in
order to determine whether a destination
address is local or remote
Data Networking

Custom Subnet Masks

Step 1: Determine the
needed
Step 2: Determine the
from the host portion
Step 3: Determine the
Step 4: Determine the
hosts per subnetwork
Step 5: Determine the
each subnet
Step 6: Determine the
subnetwork

number of subnets
number of bits to borrow
subnet mask
maximum number of
subnetwork addresses for
address ranges for each

Data Networking

Classless Interdomain
Routing (CIDR)
Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) a
method used to minimize the number of routing
table entries
The basic concept in CIDR is to allocate multiple
IP addresses so they can be summarized into a
smaller number of routing table entries
This strategy relieves routers of additional
workload

Data Networking

IP Address Conservation
Proxy servers:
Replace the network IP address with another,
contingent address.
Allow a network to be represented by one IP
address on the Internet
Network Address Translation (NAT):
The process of translating one IP address into
another
NAT allows system administrators to use any
IP addressing scheme internally, and one or
more registered IP addresses externally
Data Networking

Network Address
Translation (NAT)
Types of NAT:
Port Address Translation (PAT) multiple IP
addresses are translated into one valid IP
address
Static address translation multiple IP
addresses are mapped to valid IP addresses
in a one-to-one relationship
Dynamic address translation multiple IP
addresses are mapped to valid IP addresses
randomly

Data Networking

IP-Enabled Device
Configuration Parametres
Basic configurations:
IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway
DHCP client
DNS server

Data Networking

IP-Enabled Device
Configuration Parametres

(cont'd)

Additional TCP/IP services:

Service

Description

Domain Name System (DNS)

service

Resolves names to IP
addresses

Windows Internet Naming

Service (WINS)

A Windows system name

resolution service that runs
automatically and does not
require configuration

Automatic Private IP
Addressing (APIPA)

Used if a modern Windows

client fails to obtain an
address from a DHCP server

Data Networking

IP-Enabled Device
Configuration Parametres

(cont'd)

Name resolution configurations:

Host name
Domain name
DNS server
NetBIOS name
WINS server

Data Networking

Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS translates IP addresses into easily
recognizable names
Domain name syntax:

Data Networking

DNS Hierarchy
Root-level domain contains entries for each top-level domain
Top-level domain consists of categories found at the end of
domain names (such as .com or .uk)
Second-level domain include the businesses and institutions
that register their domain names with the top-level domains

Data Networking

DNS Components
DNS consists of two key components:
Name server a server that supports
name-to-address translation and runs the
DNS service
Name resolver software that uses the
services of one or more name servers to
resolve unknown requests

Data Networking

DNS Server Types

DNS follows the standard client/server model:
The client makes a request, and the server
attempts to fulfill that request
Server types included in the DNS model:
Root server
Primary server
Secondary server
Caching-only server
Forwarding server

Data Networking

DNS Records
DNS Record

Function

Name Server (NS)

Identifies DNS servers for the DNS domain

Start Of Authority (SOA)

Identifies the DNS server that is the best source

of information for the DNS domain

Address (A)

Associates a host to a 32-bit IPv4 address

Address (AAAA)

Associates a host name to a 128-bit IPv6

address

Canonical Name
(CNAME)

Creates an alias for a specified host

Pointer (PTR)

Maps an IPv4 address to the canonical name for

that host

Mail Exchanger (MX)

Identifies a server used to process and deliver

e-mail messages for the domain

Service (SRV)

Allows you to specify a server for a particular

address

Naming Authority
Pointer (NAPTR)

Used to store rules used by Dynamic Delegation

Discovery System (DDDS) applications

Data Networking

BOOTstrap
Protocol (BOOTP)
A TCP/IP application-layer protocol that enables
diskless workstations to determine IP addresses
and parametres
BOOTP can return information such as IP
addresses, subnet masks, default gateway
addresses and name server addresses
BOOTP is a client/server program

Data Networking

Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
A protocol that assigns IP addresses
automatically on a TCP/IP network
Along with an IP address, DHCP can specify:
Subnet mask
Default gateway
DNS server
WINS server
IP addresses can be reserved by mapping an IP
address in the DHCP pool to a clients MAC
address

Data Networking

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Addressing Essentials
IPv4 vs. IPv6 addresses
Different length
IPv4 32 bits divided into four 8-bit integers
IPv6 128 bits divided into eight 16-bit
integers
Different notation
IPv4 dotted decimal
IPv6 colon notation
Different number system
IPv4 decimal
IPv6 hexadecimal
Data Networking

IPv6 Address Types

IPv6 supports three types of addresses:
Unicast a point-to-point address that is
assigned to a single entity
Multicast a single IP address assigned to a
group; multicasting is a one-to-many
communication
Anycast similar to multicast; when
communicating to an anycast address, the
closest member of the anycast group is
found, and the message is sent only to that
member of the group

Data Networking

Summary
Identify common ports and services
Define common internal and external routing protocols, and
distinguish between internal and external routing protocol
functions
Explain dynamic, static and default routes, and describe the
function of routing tables
Compare and contrast connection-oriented and
connectionless transport
Define and identify well-known, registered and
random/dynamic ports
Compare and contrast the IPv4 and IPv6 address formats
Determine the network address/number when given a host
address and subnet mask
Identify network, host and broadcast addresses
Define unicasting, broadcasting, multicasting and
anycasting
Data Networking

Summary

(cont'd)

Explain private network addressing

Identify the importance of the subnet mask
Identify the subnet mask by bit count and by dotted
decimal notation, and define Classless Interdomain Routing
(CIDR)
Determine the number of host addresses in a subnet
Describe the impact of proxies on convergent network
communications
Explain Network Address Translation (NAT)
Identify Domain Name System (DNS) features and functions
Explain functions and benefits of automatic addressing
including protocol steps, and troubleshooting handsets, PCs
and all IP-enabled devices
Determine which Internet Protocol (IP) version to
implement (e.g., IPv4 vs. IPv6)
Data Networking

Lesson 5:
QoS, VLANs
and Troubleshooting

Objectives
Describe the need for Quality of Service (QoS) in
converged networks, including identifying problems that
occur without QoS
Summarize the importance of QoS to real-time solutions
Compare and contrast QoS with Class of Service (CoS)
Compare and contrast best-effort delivery and QoS with
traffic shaping
Identify QoS technologies, describe network neutrality
issues, and identify proprietary and open-source solutions
Describe the Type of Service (TOS) field in an IP packet
Explain the roles of 802.1p, 802.1q and 802.1d when
providing QoS, including implementation of traffic shaping
using VLANs or protocols

Data Networking

Objectives

(cont'd)

Describe QoS on wireless networks (802.11e), including

Wireless Multimedia Extensions (WME) / WiFi Multimedia
(WMM)
Describe fundamental VLAN functions, features and
concepts
Identify benefits of using a VLAN
Identify typical problems that occur without a VLAN
List common troubleshooting steps
Use the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to
determine connectivity
Identify common configuration errors in IP devices
Explain the effects of Network Address Translation (NAT)
and Port Address Translation (PAT) on convergence
solutions such as Session Initiation Protocol (SIP),
including workarounds and solutions
Data Networking

Quality of Service (QoS)

Quality of Service (QoS) a defined system for
measuring and improving end-to-end
performance in communications networks
Three levels of QoS:
Best-effort service provides no guarantees of
delivery, speed or order of delivery
Differentiated service (Class of Service)
marks some traffic to indicate that it should be
treated with priority over the rest of the traffic
Guaranteed service confirms an absolute
reservation of network resources for specific
traffic
Data Networking

Class of Service (COS)

Class of Service (CoS) A set of QoS
technologies and software mechanisms that
determine packet priority in IP networks on a
hop-by-hop basis
Three basic CoS technologies:
802.1p Layer 2 tagging
IP Precedence (use of the Type of Service
[TOS] field in an IP packet header)
Differentiated Services (DiffServ)

Data Networking

Traffic Shaping
Traffic shaping the process of controlling the
volume and rate of traffic sent in to a network
Traffic-shaping mechanisms include:
Buffers incoming traffic is buffered to help
with flow control
Queues outgoing traffic is separated into
distinct data flows and then directed to the
appropriate queues on a forwarding device
Traffic-shaping algorithms control the
amount of data injected into the network

Data Networking

Problems that Occur

Without QoS
Problems encountered in best-effort delivery
networks:
Delay packets are held up in a queue or
arrive later because they took different routes
Jitter quality problems caused by different
delays
Dropped packets packets may be dropped
when a router's buffer is full
Corrupted packets packets may be
corrupted during transmission
Disordered packet delivery packets may
arrive out of sequence
Data Networking

QoS Technologies
QoS

standards and protocols:

Differentiated Services (DiffServ)
Integrated Services (IntServ)
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
802.1p and 802.1q

Data Networking

Differentiated
Services (DiffServ)
DiffServ differentiates data packets into classes to
ensure preferential treatment for higher-priority
traffic
Type of Service (TOS) field stipulates the level of
service that the data requires
TOS elements:
Precedence bits
Delay bit
Throughput bit
Reliability bit
Cost bit
Bit 7
Data Networking

DiffServ
Priority Levels
Using the three Precedence bits of the TOS field (0, 1 and 2), a
network administrator could assign priority levels from 0 (default)
to 7 (highest) to classify and prioritize types of traffic at Layer 3, as
shown:
Priority
Level

Precedence
Bits

Traffic Type

000

Routine

001

Priority

010

Immediate

011

Flash

100

Flash Override

101

Critical

110

Internetwork Control

111

Network Control

Data Networking

Integrated
Services (IntServ)
IntServ an architecture that uses RSVP to
reserve the total bandwidth along the entire
network path before data transmission takes
place
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) an IETF
standard that allows an application to request
the QoS it needs by sending end-to-end control
messages along the data's path
IntServ and RSVP operate by reserving capacity
in the network, based on the needs of a session,
before the session is set up

Data Networking

Multiprotocol Label
Switching (MPLS)
MPLS a QoS technology that allows routers and
switches to instantly recognise a packet and
pass it along a set of predetermined paths
MPLS integrates Layer 2 information about
network links into Layer 3 within a particular
system
Label Edge Router (LER) a 32-bit header added
to a packet when the packet enters an MPLS
network
The MPLS LERs enable the MPLS network to
route once and switch thereafter
The major advantage to MPLS is speed
Data Networking

IEEE 802.1p, 802.1q and 802.1d

IEEE 802.1p prioritizes network traffic at the
MAC sublayer of the OSI data link layer (Layer 2)
IEEE 802.1q defines the creation of VLAN tags,
which are used by the 802.1p standard to
prioritize network traffic
IEEE 802.1d (Spanning Tree Protocol [STP]):
Builds a loop-free network when redundant
paths are present
Activates standby links when a primary path
becomes unavailable

Data Networking

QoS on Wireless Networks

On wireless LANS based on the 802.11 standard:
All users share the network bandwidth
No one packet gets priority over any other
802.11 uses two coordination functions:
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
Neither DCF nor PCF differentiate between
traffic types or sources

Data Networking

IEEE 802.11e
IEEE 802.11e defines QoS mechanisms for
wireless networks
Enhances DCF and PCF through the Hybrid
Coordination Function (HCF), which has two
methods of channel access:
Enhanced DCF Channel Access (EDCA) highpriority traffic has a higher chance of being
sent than low-priority traffic
HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA)
enables applications such as VoIP and
streaming video to function more effectively
on WiFi networks
Data Networking

WiFi Multimedia (WMM)

WMM prioritizes wireless network traffic and
provides basic QoS services
A subset of the 802.11e standard
Categorizes and prioritizes traffic
Does not provide guaranteed throughput
Four access categories:
Voice (highest priority)
Video
Best effort
Background (lowest priority)
Also known as Wireless Multimedia Extensions
(WME)
Data Networking

Virtual LANs (VLANs)

Virtual local area networks (VLANs):
Are a group of nodes in the same broadcast
domain
Are created with software instead of hardware
Are implemented on switches
Eliminate collision domains
Operate on the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI/RM
Function without depending on the physical
topology of the LAN

Data Networking

802.1q Frames
802.1q defines the process by which frames
can be tagged as belonging to a specific VLAN
Standard Ethernet frame:

802.1q frame:

Data Networking

Tag Control
Information (TCI) Field
Includes the following three components:
A 3-bit user_priority field
A 1-bit canonical format identifier (CFI)
A 12-bit VLAN ID field (VID)

Data Networking

802.1p Header
Includes a 3-bit priority field that allows frames to
be grouped into eight traffic classes:
Priority Level

Traffic Type

Examples

Background

The lowest priority

Undefined

Undefined

Best Effort

Typical network traffic

Excellent Load

Business-critical

Controlled Load

Streaming multimedia

Video

Video-conferencing

Voice

IP telephony

Network Control
Reserved

Network-management
traffic

Data Networking

Assigning
VLAN Membership
Port group-based VLANs membership based on
manual configuration of ports on a switch
MAC-based VLANs membership based on MAC
address of device connected to a given switch
port
Layer 3-based VLANs membership based on
Layer 3 information (protocol type or network
layer address)
Authentication-based VLANs membership
based on authentication credentials of user or
device using 802.1x protocol

Data Networking

VLAN Benefits
Benefits of VLANs:
Vital to the successful function of time-sensitive
applications
The ability to prioritize and smooth traffic
allows network devices to perform load
balancing
Makes network management a little easier
Allows for protocol management on the
network
Convergence without VLANs:
Convergence applications may not get the
bandwidth and network access they require
Time-sensitive applications suffer from
extended delays, causing jitter
Data Networking

Troubleshooting Overview
Successful troubleshooting steps can be
categorized into four areas:
Analyzing the scope of the problem
Applying troubleshooting methods
Using troubleshooting indicators
Using troubleshooting tools

Data Networking

Analyzing the
Scope of the Problem
Knowing a problem's scope helps you determine
its severity
Consider the following questions:
How many machines or network segments
are affected?
How frequently does the problem occur?
Can the problem be duplicated?

Data Networking

Applying
Troubleshooting Methods
Use the DETECT acronym to remember
appropriate troubleshooting methods:
D Discover the problem
E Evaluate the scope of the problem
T Track approaches to solving the problem
E Execute an approach
C Check for problem resolution
T Transfer knowledge

Data Networking

Using
Troubleshooting Indicators
Network operating systems include error-logging
and reporting utilities:
Windows systems Application log, Security
log and System log
Windows Event Viewer utility
Linux operating systems log errors in the
/var/log/messages file
Mac OS X and BSD systems log errors in
the /var/system.log file
Indicator lights point out reliable
connections, errors and activity
Data Networking

Using
Troubleshooting Tools
Common troubleshooting tools include:
Crossover cables can eliminate hubs and
switches as potential causes of connectivity
problems
Hardware loopback devices can determine
whether the device can communicate with
itself, indicating that the TCP stack is
functioning correctly on the device
Tone generators and tone locators (fox and
hound) can identify network cabling

Data Networking

Overview of
TCP/IP Troubleshooting Tools
Every administrator of a TCP/IP network should
be familiar with the following two network files:
The services file contains port numbers for
well-known services
The protocol(s) file identifies the Internet
protocols used on a network

Data Networking

Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP)
ICMP a protocol that relays messages when a
host is unavailable
Known as the troubleshooting protocol of TCP/IP
A required part of the TCP/IP stack
Allows Internet hosts and gateways to report
errors:
Source-quench error messages generated
when packets arrive too quickly for a host or
gateway to process
Echo-request and echo-reply query messages
used by the ping command to test
reachability results
Data Networking

General Network
Troubleshooting Commands
Use the following commands to assist with general
network troubleshooting:
ping
tracert / traceroute
netstat
telnet

Data Networking

The ping Command

Tests connectivity between source and
destination systems
Syntax: ping ip_address
Includes several options:

Data Networking

ping Output

Data Networking

The tracert Command

Used to determine the path between the source
and destination systems
Provides information on round-trip propagation
time between each router and the source
system
You can use tracert to locate failures far from
your local network
Note: UNIX uses traceroute

Data Networking

tracert Output

Data Networking

The netstat Command

Displays information about packets processed
by your system on the network
Shows the state of sockets
If executed without specifying options, the
netstat command displays established active
connections:

Data Networking

The telnet Command

Allows users to log on to a remote computer,
provided that permission has been granted
Ideal for troubleshooting because you can log on
to a system from wherever you are and work as
if you were sitting in front of it

Data Networking

Name and
Address Commands
The following commands are helpful when
troubleshooting name resolution problems:
ipconfig / ifconfig
arp

Data Networking

The ipconfig
and ifconfig Commands
The ipconfig command is used to display IP
configurations in Windows
Syntax: ipconfig options
Options include:
/all shows all IP-related configuration information
/release releases IP addresses obtained from a
DHCP server
/renew renews IP addresses obtained from a
DHCP server
The ifconfig command is used to display IP
configuration settings in UNIX-based systems,
including Linux; has much of the same functionality
as the Windows ipconfig command
Data Networking

ipconfig Output

Data Networking

The arp Command

Displays and modifies the Internet-to-MACaddress translation tables used by the Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP resolves software (IP) addresses into
hardware (MAC) addresses

Data Networking

Network Analyzers
Used for:
Monitoring network traffic to identify network
trends
Identifying network problems and sending
alert messages
Identifying specific problems
Testing network connections, devices and
cables
Also known as protocol analyzers

Data Networking

Troubleshooting
Considerations
DNS name resolution
Is the address for the DNS server correct?
Hosts file configuration
Is the lmhosts file accurate?
Static vs. dynamic IP addressing
Are two nodes attempting to use the same IP
address?
Default gateway and subnet mask
Is the default gateway specified correctly?
Is the proper subnet mask specified?

Data Networking

Common Configuration
Errors in IP Devices
Firmware updates can provide additional
features and functionality for various types of
devices
Proxy settings you must configure both the
server and your IP devices to work together
Communication mode When an IP device
operates in half-duplex, other devices will fall
back to half-duplex when communicating with
that device

Data Networking

NAT and PAT Issues

NAT and PAT can pose problems for VoIP
communications that use SIP
If you need to implement SIP in a network where
NAT and PAT are used, consider the following
workarounds:
Simple Traversal of UDP through Network
Address Translators (STUN)
Traversal Using Relay NAT (TURN)
Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
Application Layer Gateway (ALG)

Data Networking

Summary
Describe the need for Quality of Service (QoS) in
converged networks, including identifying problems that
occur without QoS
Summarize the importance of QoS to real-time solutions
Compare and contrast QoS with Class of Service (CoS)
Compare and contrast best-effort delivery and QoS with
traffic shaping
Identify QoS technologies, describe network neutrality
issues, and identify proprietary and open-source solutions
Describe the Type of Service (TOS) field in an IP packet
Explain the roles of 802.1p, 802.1q and 802.1d when
providing QoS, including implementation of traffic shaping
using VLANs or protocols

Data Networking

Summary

(cont'd)

Describe QoS on wireless networks (802.11e), including

Wireless Multimedia Extensions (WME) / WiFi Multimedia
(WMM)
Describe fundamental VLAN functions, features and
concepts
Identify benefits of using a VLAN
Identify typical problems that occur without a VLAN
List common troubleshooting steps
Use the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to
determine connectivity
Identify common configuration errors in IP devices
Explain the effects of Network Address Translation (NAT)
and Port Address Translation (PAT) on convergence
solutions such as Session Initiation Protocol (SIP),
including workarounds and solutions
Data Networking

Data Networking
Introduction to Data Networking
Transmission, Communication and Wiring
LANs and WANs
TCP/IP Suite and Internet Addressing
QoS, VLANs and Troubleshooting

Data Networking