METALS

And Their Properties

INTODUCTION

Ametal(fromGreekwordmtallon, "mine,
quarry, metal") is a solid material (an
element,compound, or alloy) that is
typically hard, opaque, shiny, and features
goodelectricalandthermal conductivity.
Metals are generally malleablethat is,
they can be hammered or pressed
permanently out of shape without breaking
or crackingas well asfusible(able to be
fused or melted) andductile(able to be
drawn out into a thin wire). 91 of the 118
elements in the periodicare metals.

The meaning of "metal" differs for various

communities. For example,astronomersuse
the blanket term "metal" for convenience to
collectively describe all elements other than
hydrogenandhelium(the main components of
stars, which in turn comprise most of the
visible matter in the universe). Thus, in
astronomyandphysical cosmology, the
metallicityof an object is the proportion of its
matter made up of chemical elements other
than hydrogen and helium.In addition, many
elements and compounds that are not normally
classified as metals become metallic under
high pressures; these are known as
metallic allotropes of non-metals .

Different
Properties
of Metal

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The

physical properties of different

metals make them useful for different
purposes. For example, aluminum
conducts heat, which makes it a useful
material for making saucepans and gold
is shiny, which makes it an attractive
material for jewelry.
Metal particles are held together by
strong metallic bonds, which is why they
have high melting and boiling points.
The loose electrons in metals can all
move together through the metal
creating an electric current.

EXAMPLES
Metal

Property

Use

Aluminum

Heat conductor

Make saucepans

Copper

Electrical conductor

Make electric wiring

Gold

Lustrous (shiny)

Make jewelry

Lead

Dense

To add weight when scuba

diving

Platinum

High melting and boiling

Electrodes of spark plugs

point
Steel

High tensile strength

Strong

Make ropes for

anchoring an oil rig

Make bridges,
buildings and cars

Tungsten

Hard

Make drill bits

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Metals combine with other metals and some nonmetallic elements to form a vast number of
alloys that enhance the properties of metals in
specific applications, e.g., the combination of
iron, nickel and chromium provides a series of
stainless steel alloys that are in common use.
Metals such as nickel, vanadium, molybdenum,
cobalt, rare earths and the platinum group
metals enable the catalytic reactions for the
synthesis of many organic chemicals from
petroleum. A wide variety of metal compounds
and salts impart beneficial properties to
products like plastics in terms of colour,
brightness, flame resistance and resistance to
degradation. Photography has been made
possible by the effect of light on metal salts.

EXAMPLE

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The

properties of strength and

ductility enable the extensive use
of metals in structures and
machinery. Metals and alloys
exhibit ductility, malleability and
the ability to be deformed
plastically (that is, without
breaking), making them easy to
shape into beams (steel beams for
construction), extrusions
(aluminum frames for doors and
windows), coins, metal cans and a
variety of fasteners (nails and

EXAMPLE

CONDUCTIVITY
(ELECTRICAL)

Metals are excellent conductors of both

heat and electricity. In general,
conductivity increases with decreasing
temperature, so that, at absolute zero (273C), conductivity is infinite; in other
words, metals become superconductors.
Thermal conductivity is harnessed in
automobile radiators and cooking
utensils. Electrical conductivity provides
society with the ability to transmit
electricity over long distances to
provide lights and power in cities
remote from electrical generating
stations. The circuitry in household
appliances, television sets and

. Wear resistance is critical in bearings for all modes

of transportation and in machine tools. Fatigue
resistance - the ability to resist breaking after
repeated deformation such as bending - enables the
use of metals in springs, levers and gears.
Temperature resistance makes metals suitable for jet
engines and filaments in light-bulbs. Optical
Characteristics: Metals are uniformly lustrous and,
except for copper and gold, are silvery or grayish.
This is because all metals absorb light at all
frequencies and immediately radiate it. Metals
impart mirrors with their reflective surface. The
luster of metals gives them the attractive
appearance that is so important in jewelry and coins.
(Interestingly, metals also provide the intangible,
distinctive "metallic ring" that is associated with
coins.)

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Ferromagnetism

is exhibited by iron
and several other metals. In
addition, other metals and alloys can
be magnetized in an electrical field
to exhibit paramagnetic. Magnetic
properties are employed in electric
motors, generators, and speaker
systems for audio equipment.
Emission Properties: Metals emit
electrons when exposed to radiation
(e.g. light) of a short wavelength or
when heated to sufficiently high
temperatures. These phenomena are
exploited in television screens, using
rare earth oxides and in a variety of

Metallic
bonding

BACKGROUND

A metal can refer to an element, compound,

oralloythat is a good conductor of both
electricity and heat. Metals are usually
malleable, ductile, and shiny.
Metals typically consist of close-packed atoms,
meaning that the atoms are arranged like
closely packed spheres. In a metal, atoms
readily lose electrons to form positive ions
(cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for
the conductivity. The solid produced is held
together by electrostatic interactions between
the ions and theelectron cloud, which are
calledmetallic bonds.
Metals in general are conductive, having high
electrical conductivity and high thermal
conductivity. Typically they are malleable and

EXAMPLES
Sodiummetal

soft enough to be cut with a knife.

The electrical and thermal conductivities of
metals originate from the fact that their
outer electrons are delocalized. Metals can be
viewed as a collection of atoms embedded in
a sea of electrons , which are highly mobile.
The electrical conductivity, as well as the
electrons' contribution to theheat capacity
and heat conductivity of metals can be
calculated from the free electron model,
which does not take into account the detailed
structure of the ionlattice.

Is

Sea of Electrons
The

"sea of electrons" is free to flow about the crys

tal of positive metal
ions.
Metals are usually inclined to form cations through
electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to
form oxides over various timescales (iron rusts
over years, while potassium burns in seconds). The
transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and
nickel) are slower to oxidize because they form
passivating layer of oxide that protects the
interior. Others, like palladium, platinum, and gold,
do not react with theatmosphereat all. Some
metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their
surface which cannot be penetrated by further
oxygenmolecules. As a result, they retain their
shiny appearance and good conductivity for many
decades (like aluminium, magnesium, some steels,
and titanium).

The particles in a metal are held

together by strongmetallic bonds. It
takes a lot of energy toseparatethe
particles. That is why they have high
melting points and boiling points.
Solid metals are crystalline - the
particles are close together and in a
regular arrangement.

Metals

have loose
electrons in the outer
shells which form a sea
of delocalized negative
charge around the closepacked positive ions.
There are strong
electrostatic forces
holding the particles
together.

KEY
POINTS

 The

electrical and thermal

conductivities of metals originate
from the fact that their outer
electrons are delocalized. Metals
can be viewed as a collection of
atomsembedded in a sea of
electrons, which are highly
mobile.
Metals are usually inclined to
formcationsthroughelectron
loss, reacting with oxygen in the
air to formoxidesover various
timescales: for example, iron rusts
over years, while potassium burns

CONDUCTIVITY

Maglev trains are held just above the tracks by

powerful superconducting electromagnets.
The loose electrons in metals can all move
together through the metal anelectric current.
At very low temperatures some metals conduct
electricity very easily indeed. They have little or
no resistance and so enormous currents can be
produced without using large amounts of energy.
They're called superconductors.
In the future, the low resistance of
superconductors may allow transmission of
electricity without losing energy as heat on the
way. Superconductors may be used to make superfast electronic circuits so that computers will work
even faster.
The very high electric currents possible in
superconducting wires mean that very
powerfulelectromagnetscan be made. These are
used inMRI scanners a non-invasive system for
investigating the workings of the living body.

Individual
Properties
of Metals

HARDNESS
Hardness

refers to the ability of a metal to

resistabrasion, penetration, cutting action,
or permanentdistortion.
Hardness may be increased by working
themetal and, in the case of steel and
certain titanium andaluminum alloys, by
heattreatmentand cold-working(discussed
later).
Structural parts are often formed
frommetals in their soft state and then heat
treated to hardenthem so that the finished
shape will be retained.
Hardness and strength are closely
associated propertiesof all metals.

BRITTLENESS
Brittleness

is the property
of a metal that allows
littlebending or
deformation without
shattering.
In otherwords, a brittle
metal is apt to break or
crack withoutchange of
shape.
Because structural metals

MALLEABILITY
A

metal that can be hammered,

rolled, or pressedinto various
shapes without cracking or
breaking or other detrimental
effects is said to be malleable.
Thisproperty is necessary in sheet
metal that is to be workedinto
curved shapes such as cowlings,
fairings, and wingtips.
Copper is one example of a
malleable metal.

DUCTILITY
Ductility

is the property of a metal that

permits it tobe permanently drawn, bent, or
twisted into variousshapes without breaking.
This propertyis essential formetals used in
making wire and tubing.
Ductile metalsare greatly preferred for
aircraft use because of theirease of forming
and resistance to failure under shockloads.
For this reason, aluminum alloys are used
forcowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and
formed orextruded parts, such as ribs, spars,
and bulkheads.
Chrome-molybdenum steel is also easily
formed intodesired shapes.
Ductility is similar to malleability.

ELASTICITY

Elasticity is that property that enables a

metal toreturn to its original shape
when the force that causesthe change
of shape is removed.
This propertyisextremely valuable,
because it would be highlyundesirable
to have a part permanently distorted
after anapplied load was removed.
Each metal has a pointknown as the
elastic limit, beyond which it cannot
beloaded without causing permanent
distortion.
Whenmetal is loaded beyond its elastic
limit and permanentdistortion does
result, it is referred to as strained.

TOUGHNESS
A material that possesses toughness
will withstandtearing or shearing and
may be stretched or
otherwisedeformed without breaking.
Toughness is a desirableproperty in
aircraft metals.
Density is the weight of a unit volume
of a material.In aircraft work, the
actual weight of a material per
cubicinch is preferred, since this
figure can be used indetermining the
weight of a part before
actualmanufacture.
Density is an important

FUSIBILITY
Fusibility

is defined as the
ability of a metal tobecome
liquid by the application of
heat.
Metals arefused in welding.
Steels fuse at approximately
2,500F,and aluminum alloys
at approximately 1, 110F.

CONDUCTIVITY

Conductivity is the property that enables a metal

tocarry heat or electricity.
The heat conductivity of a metalis especially
important in welding, because it governsthe
amount of heat that will be required for
properfusion.
Conductivity of the metal, to a certain
extent,determines the type of jig to be used to
control expansionandcontraction.
In aircraft, electrical conductivity mustalso be
considered in conjunction with bonding, whichis
used to eliminate radio interference.
Metals vary intheir capacity to conduct heat.
Copper, for instance, hasa relatively high rate of
heat conductivity and is a goodelectrical
conductor.

Application

 Some

metals and metal alloys

possess high structural strength
per unit mass, making them useful
materials for carrying large loads
or resisting impact damage. Metal
alloys can be engineered to have
high resistance to shear, torque
and deformation. However the
same metal can also be vulnerable
to fatigue damage through
repeated use or from sudden
stress failure when a load capacity
is exceeded. The strength and
resilience of metals has led to

 The

two most commonly used

structural metals, iron and
aluminum, are also the most
abundant metals in the
Earth's crust.
Metals are good conductors,
making them valuable in
electrical appliances and for
carrying an electric current
over a distance with little
energy lost. Electrical power
grids rely on metal cables to

 The

thermal conductivity of metal is

useful for containers to heat
materials over a flame. Metal is also
used forheat sinksto protect
sensitive equipment from
overheating.
The high reflectivity of some metals
is important in the construction of
mirrors, including precision
astronomical instruments. This last
property can also make metallic
jewelry aesthetically appealing.
Some metals have specialized uses;
radioactive metals such asuranium
andplutoniumare used in

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